Research Paper

In
Thermodynamics
(Manometer)

Submitted by:
Alinsub, Jemerson C.
Li-boon, Faith Marie B.
Gonzales, Shiela Mae P.
BSEE – 3
Date:___________________

Submitted to:
Engr. Tolentino
 All About Manometers - What They Are and How They Work

Manometers are precision instruments that are used to measure pressure, which is the force
exerted by a gas or liquid per unit surface area owing to the effects of the weight of that gas or
liquid from gravity. Depending on the type and how they are configured, manometers can be set-
up to provide a measurement of different pressure values. A common type of manometer with
which most people are familiar is the one that physicians and medical professionals use to
measure and monitor a patient’s blood pressure. This type of manometer is called
a sphygmomanometer.

This article will describe the different types of manometers, explain how they work, present their
applications, and discuss correction factor considerations used for manometers.

Pressure Definitions

It is useful to review a few basic principles that relate to pressure. Pressure is a measure of the
amount of force (F) that is exerted per unit area (A):

The unit of measure for pressure is, therefore, a force value divided by a squared distance value.
In metric units, the unit a measure for pressure is Newtons/(meter)2, known as a Pascal (Pa).
Other common pressure units of measure include pounds per square inch (psi), millibars,
atmospheres (atm), millimeters of mercury (mm Hg), and inches of water (in H2O).

Pressure can be represented in terms of three specific categories:

 Absolute pressure
 Gauge pressure
 Differential pressure
Absolute pressure measures the value of pressure that is exerted relative to the absolute zero
pressure of a vacuum. Gauge pressure is presenting the difference between the measured value of
pressure and the local atmospheric pressure (think in terms of a tire pressure gauge). Differential
pressure is used to describe making a measurement that is the difference between two (unknown)
pressure levels, where there is not a reference pressure being specified, but measuring the
amount of pressure by which the two differ is still important.

Therefore, total or absolute pressure can be defined in terms of gauge pressure and atmospheric
pressure as follows:

Types of Manometers

Manometers can be broadly classified as being of two principal types, analog manometers and
digital manometers, each of which are discussed below.

Analog Manometers and How They Work

Analog manometers make use of a fluid that is contained in a U-shaped tube and operates using
the principle of Hydrostatic Balance. The fluid in the tube will settle to equal height in each leg
of the tube when both ends are open to atmospheric pressure. But if positive pressure is applied
to one of the legs of the U-shaped tube, then the level of liquid will fall in that leg and rise in the
other leg. This is because the pressure will force the fluid to fall in the one leg and rise in the
other until the weight of the column of fluid that results from the applied pressure is enough to
oppose that pressure value. Hence, the vertical distance between the level of the fluid in the two
legs of the tube represents a measure of the amount of pressure being applied. These common
types of analog manometers are referred to as U tube manometers. The pressure value (P) being
observed is a function of the height (h) and density (ρ) of the fluid used in the manometer, the
value (g) representing the gravitational constant.
Another type of analog manometer is the well type manometer, sometimes referred to as a cistern
manometer. The well type manometer is like the U tube style, the difference being that one of the
legs of the U has a cross-sectional area that is much larger than that of the second leg. This
arrangement results in a smaller movement of the fluid level in the larger leg when exposed to
pressure, effectively allowing the use of a single scale to read to obtain the pressure value, as
opposed to two scales in the U tube style.

Inclined Manometers as the name implies are designed with a tube that does not sit vertically,
but rather at a shallow angle relative to the horizontal plane. This design allows a relatively small
amount of pressure change to be observed by the instrument, thus offering improved sensitivity
and resolution.

Another type of manometer is called an absolute manometer. Absolute manometers use a sealed
leg that permits only one leg of the manometer tube to be exposed to the outside pressure. On the
sealed side, a vacuum condition exists which represents absolute zero pressure sealed by a
column of mercury. The manometer is, therefore, measuring absolute pressure rather than gauge
pressure or differential pressure. This type of manometer can be either the well style of U tube
style described above. Mercury barometers that measure the atmospheric pressure are a common
example of an absolute manometer.

Various fluids are used in analog manometers. Common fluids are shown in Table 1, below,
which are sometimes referred to as manometric fluids. By changing the fluid used, the accuracy,
range, and sensitivity of the analog manometer can be varied. Fluids with densities higher than
water provide higher ranges but lower resolutions. Similarly, lowering the density of the
manometric fluid, also called the indicting fluid, will decrease the pressure range but increase its
sensitivity.

Table 1 – Examples of Indicating Fluids for Use in Manometers

* Specific gravity represents the ratio of the fluid’s density relative to the density of water.

Indicating Fluid Temperature range Specific Gravity*

High Purity Mercury -30oF – 200oF 13.54 @ 71.6oF
Red Oil #827 40oF – 120oF 0.827 @ 60oF
 Red Unity Oil # 100 30oF – 100oF 1.00 @ 73oF
Green Concentrate #1000 40oF – 120oF 1.000 @ 55oF
Acetylene Tetrabromide 40oF – 100oF 2.95 @ 78oF
Dibutyl Phthalate 20oF – 150oF 1.04 @ 80oF

Digital Manometers and How They Work

Digital manometers, also known as electronic manometers, do not rely on Hydrostatic Balance of
fluids to determine pressure. Instead, they contain a pressure transducer, a device that can
convert an observed pressure level into an electrical signal whose characteristic value is
proportional to, or a proxy for, the magnitude of the pressure. The elastic portion of the
transducer deflects under pressure and that deflection is then converted to a value of an electrical
parameter which can be detected and calibrated to a pressure reading. Pressure transducers
typically make use of one of three types of electrical parameters – resistive, capacitive, or
inductive.

1. Resistive transducers result in the deformation changing the electrical resistance of a

strain gauge.
2. Capacitive transducers rely on changes to the value of capacitance observed resulting
from the deformation changing the relative position of the two plates of a capacitor.
3. Inductive transducers use the deformation of the elastic portion to alter the linear motion
of an attached ferromagnetic core within a coil or inductor. This movement varies the
induced emf and AC current generated in the coil.

To perform measurements on very low pressures, there are additional types of pressure
transducer styles used, including a Pirani gauge, thermocouple type transducer, and ionization
gauge. Low-pressure manometers are also called micromanometers.

Digital manometers some advantages over analog models. Digital manometers:

 Are portable in size, weigh less, and feature easy to read displays.
 Can interface with a computer or programmable logic controller (PLC).
  Do not rely on the use of manometric fluids, some of which (mercury, for example) can
be toxic.
 Are not subject to issues relating to fluid properties that can impact the accuracy of
measurements.
 Can correct for deviations from standard conditions via software programming.

As they are not a primary standard, however, they do require periodic calibration against a
primary standard.

Fluid Property Corrections Applicable to Manometers

Analog manometers that rely on the properties of fluids are subject to the need for corrections.
The density of fluids is not constant with temperature and the gravitational field strength varies
as a function of both the elevation above sea level and the latitude. These facts mandate the use
of correction methodologies and the need to establish standard references so that a definition of
pressure can be established and agreed upon. Reference 5 below contains a complete
explanation of the methodologies that apply to these corrections, which are only briefly
presented here.

 Correction for Fluid Density – adjusts for the fact that the density of the indicating fluid
is not constant with temperature
 Correction for Gravitation Field – adjusts for the variation in the strength of the
gravitational field at a given altitude and latitude, relative to its value at sea level and
45.54oN lattitude
 Correction for Pressure Head – adjusts for the differential between the fluid column
density and that of the pressure medium of the same height
 Correction for Scale Changes – adjusts for the fact that the marked scale gradations will
change their separation distance due to the change in the temperature at which the
pressure reading is performed (this due to the thermal expansion/contraction of the
material from which the scale is constructed)
 Correction for the Compressibility of Fluids – this correction is mainly applicable at
higher pressures wherein the fluid density may change because of the fluid’s compression
  Other corrections – these include the absorption of gas by the fluid which can alter its
density, as well as the capillary effect which impacts how the reading is interpreted from
the scale

How Manometers Are Used

Manometers are used in a variety of industries and can measure pressure and flow
rate. Common uses include:

 HVAC systems maintenance

 Meteorological and weather conditions monitoring
 Gas pressure monitoring in piping systems
 Fluid flow measurements
 Physiological measurements such as blood pressure
 Monitoring compressor systems operations
Manometer is also called a liquid column manometer and is used for low differential pressure
measurement. The usual range of pressure that falls for this device is around 0.2 MPa or 2
Kg/cm2. This device is used for most cases as it is very simple in construction and highly
accurate of all the types.

There are basically two types of manometers:

1. U-Tube Manometer
2. Well Type Manometer

There are also variations of the above said basic types called Enlarged-Leg Type Manometer,
and Inclined Tube Manometer. Another manometer used commercially is the Ring-Balance
Type Manometer.

U-Tube Manometer
A simple u-tube manometer is shown below. If ‘dm‘is the manometric fluid density, ‘d1’ is the
density of the fluid over the manometer, ‘P2’ is the atmospheric pressure (for general
measurement of gas pressure) and ‘P1’ is the gas pressure, and also if d1<<dm, then the
differential pressure can be obtained by the relation

p1-p2 = h (dm-d1)

U-Tube Manometer

An enhanced version of a manometer is shown below with a seal liquid over the manometer
liquid to separate the process fluid from the manometer fluid for any probable source of trouble
like absorption, mixing or explosion and so on. Seal pots with large diameters are also placed for
increasing the range. The equation for differential pressure is the same as mentioned above.
Well-Type Manometer
The main difference between a U-tube manometer and a well type manometer is that the U-tube
is substituted by a large well such that the variation in the level in the well will be negligible and
instead of measuring a differential height, a single height in the remaining column is measured.
If a1 and a2 are the areas of the well and the capillary, and if (h1-h2) is the difference in height in
the well due to the pressure difference (p1-p2) as shown, at balance, then

p1-p2 = dm.h (1+a2/a1)

The figure of a well-type manometer is shown below.

Enlarged-Leg Manometer
In the enlarged-leg manometer, a2 is not negligible compared to a1. It has a float in the enlarged-
leg which is utilized for indication or recording. The two legs can be changed for changing the
measurement span. Thus, the equation becomes,

p1-p2 = dm.h
The figure of an enlarged-leg manometer is shown below.
Inclined Tube Manometer
The inclined tube manometer is an enlarged leg manometer with its measuring leg inclined to the
vertical axis by an angle b. This is done to expand the scale and thereby to increase the
sensitivity. The differential pressure can be written by the equation,

p1-p2 = dm.h.Cosb (1+a2/a1)

The factor cosb expands the scale of the instrument. When b is quite large, h can be increased
such that (h.cosb) remains constant. The figure of an inclined tube manometer is shown below.

Micromanometer
The micromanometer is another variation of liquid column manometers that is based on the
principle of inclined tube manometer and is used for the measurement of extremely small
differences of pressure. The meniscus of the inclined tube is at a reference level as shown in the
figure below, viewing through a magnifier provided with cross hair line. This is done for the
condition, p1=p2. The adjustment is done by moving the well up and down a micrometer. For the
condition p1 not equal to p2, the shift in the meniscus position is restored to zero by raising or
lowering the well as before and the difference between these two readings gives the pressure
difference in terms of height.
 Micromanometer

Manometer is shown above as a static measuring device. Its dynamics can rarely be ignored.
Considering manometric fluid as a free body, the forces acting on it are

 The weight distributed over the entire fluid.

 The drag force due to its motion and the corresponding tube wall shearing stress.

 The force due to differential pressure.

 Surface tension force at the two ends.

Ring-Balance Manometer
This device cannot be actually called a manometer, but it is often considered so. The tube is
made of polythene or other light and transparent material. This tube is bent into in to the form of
a ring and is supported at the centre by a suitable pivot. The tubular chamber is divided in to two
parts by spilling, sealing, and filling with a suitable light liquid like kerosene or paraffin oil for
isolating the two pressures. Pressure taps are made with two flexible tubings. Pressures p1 and
p2 act against the sealed walls as shown in the figure below, and rotate the ring which is
balanced by the counter weight w.

Of the various manometric fluids used, mercury has many advantages like low vapour pressure,
non-sticky nature, and wide temperature range from -20 degree Celsius to 350 degree Celsius. Its
high density is disadvantageous for low differential pressure measurements. The device
installation and maintenance is known to be quite expensive.

Manometer Basics

One of the earliest pressure measuring instruments is still in wide use today because of its
inherent accuracy and simplicity of operation. It's the U-tube manometer, which is a U-shaped
glass tube partially filled with liquid. This manometer has no moving parts and requires no
calibration. Manometry measurements are functions of gravity and the liquid's density, both
physical properties that make the U-tube manometer a NIST standard for accuracy.
 As shown in Figure 1, with each leg of a U-tube manometer exposed to the atmosphere, the
height of liquid in the columns is equal. Using this point as a reference and connecting each leg
to an unknown pressure, the difference in column heights indicates the difference in pressures
(see Figure 2).

Figure 1. With both legs of a U-tube manometer open to the

atmosphere or subjected to the same pressure, the liquid maintains the same level in each leg,
establishing a zero reference.
 Figure 2. With a greater pressure applied to the left side of a U-tube
manometer, the liquid lowers in the left leg and rises in the right leg. The liquid moves until the
unit weight of the liquid, as indicated by h, exactly balances the pressure.

The fundamental relationship for pressure expressed by a liquid column is:

Δp = P2-P1 = ρgh

where:

Δp = differential pressure

P1 = pressure at the low-pressure connection

P2 = pressure at the high-pressure connection

ρ = density of the indicating fluid (at a specific temperature)

g = acceleration of gravity (at a specific latitude and elevation)

h = difference in column heights

The resulting pressure is the difference between forces exerted per unit of surface area of the
liquid columns, with pounds per square inch (psi) or newtons per square meter (pascals) as the
units. The manometer is so often used to measure pressure that the difference in column heights
is also a common unit. This is expressed in inches or centimeters of water or mercury at a
specific temperature, which can be changed to standard units of pressure with a conversion table.

All pressure measurements are differential. The reference can be zero absolute pressure (a total
vacuum), atmospheric pressure (the barometric pressure), or another pressure. With one leg of a
manometer open to the atmosphere (see Figure 3A), the measured pressure is that which exceeds
atmospheric pressure, which at sea level is 14.7 psi, 101.3 kPa, or 76 cmHg.

Figure 3. Gauge pressure is a measurement relative to atmospheric pressure and it varies with the
barometric reading. A gauge pressure measurement is positive when the unknown pressure
exceeds atmospheric pressure (A), and is negative when the unknown pressure is less than
atmospheric pressure (B).

This measurement is called gauge pressure, and the relationship for a positive pressure is
expressed by:
absolute pressure = atmospheric pressure + positive gauge pressure.
For a negative pressure (vacuum) measurement (see Figure 3B), the column heights reverse and
the relationship is expressed by:
absolute pressure = atmospheric pressure + negative gauge pressure.

These pressure relationships are shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4. A graphical representation of positive and negative gauge pressure shows the
differential aspect of all pressure measurements, where gauge pressure is the difference between
absolute pressure and atmospheric pressure.

Figure 5. In a sealed-tube manometer, the pressure reference is a vacuum, or zero absolute

pressure. The most common form of a sealed-tube manometer is the conventional mercury
barometer used to measure atmospheric pressure.

A manometer can be designed to directly measure absolute pressure. The manometer in Figure 5
measures the pressure compared to zero absolute pressure in a sealed leg above a mercury
column. The most common form of this manometer is the conventional mercury barometer used
to measure atmospheric pressure. With just one connection, this configuration can measure
pressures above and below atmospheric pressure.

Variations on the U-Tube Manometer

The differential pressure is always the difference in column heights, regardless of the size or
shape of the tubes. As shown in Figure 6A, the legs of both manometers are open to the
atmosphere and the indicating fluids are at the same level. Connecting the same pressure to the
left leg of each manometer causes its level to lower. Because of the variation in volume in the
manometer legs, the fluid in each column moves a different distance. However, the difference
between the fluid levels in both manometers is identical (see Figure 6B).

Figure 6. The pressure reading is always the difference between fluid heights, regardless of the
tube sizes. With both manometer legs open to the atmosphere, the fluid levels are the same (A).
With an equal positive pressure applied to one leg of each manometer, the fluid levels differ, but
the distance between the fluid heights is the same.
 Figure 7. In a well-type manometer, the cross-sectional area of one leg (the well) is much larger
than the other leg. When pressure is applied to the well, the fluid lowers only slightly compared
to the fluid rise in the other leg.

Carrying this variation in tube sizes further is the well-type (or reservoir) manometer (see Figure
7). As pressure is applied to the well, the level falls slightly as compared to the level rise in the
column. By compensating the column's scale graduations to correct for the well drop, it is
possible to make a direct reading of differential pressure. There are connection guidelines placed
on well-type manometers, compared to the U-tube style:

 Connect pressures higher than atmospheric to the well; connect pressures lower than atmospheric
to the tube.
 For differential measurements, connect the higher pressure to the well.
 For raised-well manometers, the well connection can be used for gauge and vacuum
measurements.


A variation of the well-type manometer is the inclined-tube (or draft gauge) manometer in Figure
8. With an inclined indicating tube, 1 in. of a vertical rise is stretched over several inches of scale
length. The inclined-tube manometer has better sensitivity and resolution for low pressures.
Figure 8. Low pressure and low differentials are better handled with an inclined-tube manometer,
where 1 in. of vertical liquid height can be stretched to 12 in. of scale length.

Indicating Fluids
Liquid manometers measure differential pressure by balancing the weight of a liquid between
two pressures. Light liquids such as water can measure small pressure differences; mercury or
other heavy liquids are used for large pressure differences. For an indicating fluid 3 times heavier
than water, the pressure measurement range is 3 times greater, but the resolution is reduced.

Indicating fluids can be colored water, oil, benzenes, bromides, and pure mercury. When
selecting an indicating fluid, check the specifications for specific gravity, operating temperature
range, vapor pressure, and flash point. Corrosive properties, solubility, and toxicity are also
considerations.

Digital Manometers
A liquid manometer has limitations. Glass tubing, indicating fluids, and level mounting
requirements are more suited to a laboratory than the field. Also, it cannot be interfaced with a
computer or PLC. Such limitations can be overcome with digital manometers. These
microprocessor-based instruments are available in convenient, portable sizes for ease of use in
the field, or in panel or stand-alone mounting styles, with outputs for controlling a process or
transferring measurement data.

Variations from standard conditions of density and gravity must be compensated for manually
when making pressure measurements with liquid manometers. This is easier with digital
manometers, because some of the correction factors for liquid manometers can be ignored and
others can be compensated for in software.
 With dual ports, swapping sensors is all that is needed to change among differential, gauge and
absolute pressure measurements.

Other common features of digital manometers include:

 Onboard memory for data logging or storing min./max. readings

 Averaging a number of readings to dampen pressure pulses

Higher accuracy digital manometers are used to calibrate pressure transmitters and other pressure
instrumentation in the field. Digital calibrators are faster and simpler as they require no boxes,
gas cylinders, regulators, or weights to set up and have no special platforms or critical leveling
requirements. Further comparisons of liquid and digital manometer specifications are shown in
Table 1.

TABLE 1

Manometer Specifications

Liquid Manometers Digital Manometers

U-tube Well Inclined General Purpose Calibrating

Range 100 in. 100 in. 20 in. 20-2000 in H2O, 2000 in H2O,
20-2000 psig, 2000 psig,
2000 mmHg 2000 mmHg

Accuracy ±½ of minor scale ±½ of minor scale ±½ of minor scale ±0.025-0.1% F.S. ±0.025-0.1% F.S.
graduation graduation graduation

Wetted Parts Cast iron, stainless Stainless steel, Acrylic, stainless Clean, dry non-corrosive gases; Clean, dry non-corrosive
or Media steel, PVC, glass, glass, Viton steel, aluminum, liquids compatible with stainless gases; liquids compatible with
Compatibility Viton glass, Viton steel stainless steel

Pressure 250 psig 250-500 psig 100-350 psig 2 × range 2 × range

Rating

Mounting Wall, table Wall, table, flush Wall, table Portable Portable
front, pipe

Relative Cost Low Low/medium Medium Medium High

Manometer Pressure and Accuracy

Absolute Pressure. A measurement referenced to zero pressure; equals the sum of gauge
pressure and atmospheric pressure. Common units are pounds per square inch (psia), millimeters
mercury (mmHga), and inches mercury (in.Hga).

Accuracy. A measure of the closeness of agreement of a reading to that of a standard. For

absolute accuracy, compare to a primary standard (one recognized by NIST). Accuracies are
usually specified as a plus or minus percent of full scale. Calibration accuracies are often given
as plus or minus percent of reading with plus or minus counts.

Ambient Pressure. The pressure of the medium surrounding a device. It varies from 29.92 in.Hg
at sea level to a few inches at high altitudes.

Atmospheric Pressure. The pressure of the atmosphere on a unit surface. Also called
barometric pressure. At sea level it is 29.92 in.Hg absolute.

Count. The smallest increment of an A/D conversion that is displayed.

Differential Pressure. The difference between two measurement points. Common units are
inches of water (in.H2O), pounds per square inch (psi), and millibars (mbar).

Display Resolution. The maximum number of digits on a digital display. For example, a display
resolution of 4½ digits reads a maximum of 19,999 counts; and a display resolution of 5
significant digits reads a maximum of 99,999 counts.

Gauge Pressure. A measurement referenced to atmospheric pressure. It varies with the

barometric reading. Also used to specify the maximum pressure rating of manometers. Common
units include pounds per square inch (psig).

Range. The region between the lower and upper limits of measurements.

Resolution. The smallest portion of a measurement that can be detected.

Sensitivity. The smallest change in measurement that can be detected.

Uncertainty. An estimate of the possible error in a measurement. This is the opposite of

accuracy.

Vacuum. Any pressure below atmospheric pressure. When referenced to the atmosphere, it is
called a vacuum (or negative gauge) measurement. When referenced to zero pressure, it is an
absolute pressure measurement.

Zero Absolute Pressure. The complete absence of any gas; a perfect vacuu