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FLUID MECHANICS AND MACHINES

MODULE 2
BY DR TUSHAR CHOUDHARY
ABOUT FLUID MECHANICS AND MACHINES COURSE
Course Title: Fluid Mechanics and Machines
Proposed Course Number: ME308
Units: Lecture 3 Tutorial 1 Lab 2 Credit 4
Mode: Core
Evaluation Scheme: Lab Work (20%) Quiz I-II (10%), Mid-Term (25%), Assignment (10%), End-Term (35%)
Semester: III
Programme: BTech
Learning Objective:
• Understand the basics of fluid statics, kinematics and dynamics, used in the applications of Aerodynamics, Hydraulics,
Marine Engineering, Gas dynamics etc.
• Understand the importance of flow and pressure measurements and its applications in Industries
• Recognize the basic design concepts of a pipe flow and understand the various losses in a flow system.
• Realize the significance of non-dimensional parameters.
• Carry out dimensional analysis and establish relationship between the dependent and independent variables
• Understand boundary layer formation and concepts related to flow separation
• Accquire knowledge about the testing of fluid machineries for its performance characteristics
DETAILED COURSE CONTENT

Module I
Fluid Statics: Definition of Fluid & Characteristics – Concept of Continuum - Properties of fluids- Classification of
Fluids – Pascal’s and Hydrostatic Law- Hydrostatic Forces on Different Surfaces – Determination of Total Pressure
and Centre of Pressure – Buoyancy – Centre of Buoyancy – Metacentre – Conditions of Equilibrium for Submerged
and Floating Bodies.

Module 2
Fluid Kinetics, Dynamics & Flow Through Pipes: Description of Fluid Motion – Lagrangian and Eulerian Methods –
Types of Fluid Flow – Stream Function and Velocity Potential – Rotation – Vorticity – Flow Lines, Reynolds Transport
Theorem – Continuity Equation – Euler’s Equation – Bernoulli’s Equation and its Practical Applications
Hydraulic and energy gradient – Laminar flow through circular conduits and circular annuli-Boundary layer concepts –
types of boundary layer thickness – Darcy Weisbach equation –friction factor- Moody diagram- commercial pipes-
minor losses.
DETAILED COURSE CONTENT

Module 3
Dimensional Analysis: Dimensional analysis and similitude, dimensionless parameters, kinematic and dynamic
similarity.

Module 4
Pumps: Impact of jets – Euler’s equation – Theory of roto-dynamic machines – various efficiencies– velocity
components at entry and exit of the rotor- velocity triangles – Centrifugal pumps– working principle – work done by
the impeller – performance curves – Reciprocating pump- working principle – Rotary pumps –classification.

Module 5
Turbines: Classification of turbines – heads and efficiencies – velocity triangles. Axial, radial and mixed flow turbines.
Pelton wheel, Francis turbine and Kaplan turbines- working principles – work done by water on the runner – draft tube.
Specific speed – unit quantities – performance curves for turbines – governing of turbines
LIST OF PRACTICAL

[1] To determine Coriolli's Component of Acceleration at various speeds of rotation.


[2] To calculate the Coefficient of Discharge Cd, Coefficient of Velocity Cv, and Coefficient of Contraction Cc for
various heads over orifice fitted in the side of a tank. And to draw a relationship between these coefficients and the size
of the orifice
[3] To compute Piezo-metric head and draw Hydraulic Gradient Line for the given flow passage
[4] To determine friction factor for the given pipes and also plot friction factor vs Reynold’s number for all the pipes
and compare it with the Moody’s chart.
[5] To determine Experiments performance and operating characteristics of turbines
[6] To determine Experiments performance and operating characteristics of centrifugal pumps - reciprocating
TEXT BOOKS & REFERENCE BOOKS:

Text Books:
1. Yunus A. Çengel, John M. Cimbala (2013) Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals And Applications,
McGraw-Hill, 3rd Edition.
2 Dr.R.K.Bansal, (2012), A Textbook of Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machines, 5th Edition,
Laxmi Publication.
Reference Books:
1. Robert W. Fox, Alan T. McDonald, Philip J. Pirtchard John W. Mitchell (2015), Introduction to
Fluid Mechanics, 9th Edition,Wiley Publications.
2. P.N.Modi and S.M.Seth (2011), Hydraulics and Fluid Mechanics including Hydraulic Machines,
17th Edition.
3. Donald F. Elger, Barbara C. Williams, Clayton T. Crowe, John A. Roberson (2013) Engineering
Fluid Mechanics, John Wiley & Sons, 10th Edition.
FLUID KINETICS, DYNAMICS & FLOW THROUGH PIPES

Definition
Kinematics is defined as that branch of science which deals with motion of particles
without considering the forces causing the motion.

The velocity at any point in a flow field at any time is studied in this branch of fluid
mechanics.

Once the velocity is known, then the pressure distribution and hence forces acting on
the fluid can be determined..
FLUID KINETICS, DYNAMICS & FLOW THROUGH PIPES

METHODS OF DESCRIBING FLUID MOTION

The fluid motion is described by two methods.


They are - (i) Lagrangian Method, and (ii) Eulerian Method.

In the Lagrangian method, a single fluid particle is followed during its motion and its velocity,
acceleration. density, etc., are described.

In case of Eulerian method, the velocity. acceleration, pressure, density etc., arc described at a
point in flow field . The Eulerian method is commonly used in fluid mechanics

The study of fluids at rest is called fluid statics.


FLUID KINETICS, DYNAMICS & FLOW THROUGH PIPES

TYPES OF FLUID FLOW


The fluid flow is classified as :
(i) Steady and unsteady flows ;
(ii) Uniform and non-uniform flows ;
(iii) Laminar and turbulent flows;
(iv) Compressible and incompressible flows;
(v) Rotational and irrotational flows; and
(vi) One, two and three-dimensional flows.

Steady and Unsteady Flows.


Steady flow is defined as that type of flow in which the fluid characteristics like velocity, pressure, density, etc.,
at a point do not change with time. Thus for steady flow, mathematically, we have

where (x0, y0 , z0) is a fixed point in fluid field


FLUID KINETICS, DYNAMICS & FLOW THROUGH PIPES
Unsteady flow is that type of flow, in which the velocity, pressure or density at a point changes with respect to
time. Thus, mathematically, for unsteady flow

Uniform and Non-uniform Flows.


Uniform flow is defined as that type of flow in which the velocity at any given time does not change with respect
to space (i.e. , length of direction of the flow). Mathematically, for uniform flow.

where 𝝏𝑽 = Change of velocity 𝝏𝒔 = Length of flow in the direction S.

Non-uniform flow is that type of flow in which the velocity at any given time changes with respect to space.
Thus, mathematically, for non-uniform flow.
FLUID KINETICS, DYNAMICS & FLOW THROUGH PIPES
Laminar and Turbulent Flows.
Laminar flow is defined as that type of flow in which the fluid particles move along well -defined paths or stream
line and all the stream-lines are straight and parallel. Thus the particles move in laminas or layers gliding
smoothly over the adjacent layer. This type of flow is also called streamline flow or viscous flow.

Turbulent flow is that type of flow in which the fluid particles move in a zig-zag way. Due to the movement of
fluid particles in a zig-zag way, the eddies formation takes place which are responsible for high energy loss. For a
pipe flow, the type of flow is determined by a non-dimensional number called the Reynold number

𝝆𝑽𝑫 𝑽𝑫
𝑹𝒆 = =
𝝁 𝒗
where D = Diameter of pipe
V = Mean velocity of flow in pipe
ρ=Density of fluid
µ= Dynamics viscosity of the fluid
and v = Kinematic viscosity of fluid.
FLUID KINETICS, DYNAMICS & FLOW THROUGH PIPES
Compressible and Incompressible Flows.

Compressible flow is that type of flow in which the density of the fluid changes from point to point or in other
words the density (p) is not constant for the fluid. Thus. mathematically, for compressible flow
ρ ≠Constant

Incompressible flow is that type of flow in which the density is constant for the fluid flow. Liquids are generally
incompressible while gases arc compressible. Mathematically, for incompressible flow
ρ = Constant.

Rotational and Irrotational Flows.


Rotational flow is that type of flow in which the fluid particles while flowing along stream-lines, also rotate about
their own axis. And if the fluid particles while flowing along stream-lines. do not rotate about their own axis then
that type of flow is called irrotational flow.
FLUID KINETICS, DYNAMICS & FLOW THROUGH PIPES
One-, Two- and Three-Dimensional Flows.
One-dimensional flow is that type of flow in which the flow parameter such as velocity is a function of time and o ne
space co-ordinate only, say x. For a steady one-dimensional flow, the velocity is a function of one -space-coordinate
only. The variation of velocities in other two mutually perpendicular directions is assumed negligible. Hence
mathematically, for one-dimensional flow
u = f(x), v = 0 and w = 0
where u, v and w are velocity components in x, y and z directions respectively.

Two-dimensional flow is that type of flow in which the velocity is a function of time and two rectangular space co-
ordinates s ay x and y. For a steady two-dimensional flow the velocity is a function of two space co-ordinates only. The
variation of velocity in the third direction is negligible. Thus, mathematically for two-dimensional flow

u = f1(x, y), v =f2(x, y) and w = 0.

Three-dimensional Flow is that type of flow in which the velocity is a function of time and three mutually
perpendicular directions. But for a steady three-dimensional flow the fluid parameters are functions of three s pace
co-ordinates (.r. y and z) only. Thus, mathematically, for three-dimensional flow
u = f1(x, y,z), v =f2(x, y,z) and w = f3(x, y, z).
FLUID KINETICS, DYNAMICS & FLOW THROUGH PIPES
RATE OF FLOW OR DISCHARGE (Q)
It is de fined as the quantity of a fluid flowing per second thro ugh a section of a pipe or a channel.
For an incompressible fluid (or liquid) the rate of flow or discharge is expressed as the volume of fluid
f lowing across the section per second.
For compressible fluids, the rate of flow is usually expressed as the weight of fluid flowing across the section. Thus
(i) For liquids the unit of Q are m3/s or litres/s
(ii) For gases the units of Q is kgf/s or Newton/s
Consider a liquid flowing through a pipe in which
A = Cross-sectional are a of pipe
V =Average velocity of fluid across the section

Then discharge Q=A XV.


FLUID KINETICS, DYNAMICS & FLOW THROUGH PIPES
CONTINUITY EQUATION
The equation based on the principle of conservation of mass is called continuity equation.
Thus for a fluid flowing through the pipe at all the cross-section, the quantity of fluid per second is constant.
Consider two cross-sections of a pipe as shown in Fig..
Let
V1 = Average velocity at cross-section 1-1
ρ1 = Density at section 1-1
A 1 = Area of pipe at section 1-1

and V2, p2, A2 are corresponding values at section, 2-2.


Then rate of flow at section 1-1 = ρ 1A1 V1
Rate of flow at section 2-2 = ρ2 A2 V2
According to law of conservation of mass of flow,
Rate of flow at section 1-1 = Rate of flow at section 2-2
or ρ 1A1V1 = ρ 2A2V2
above equation is applicable to the compressible as well as incomepressible fluids and is called Continuity Equation.
If the fluid is incompressible, then ρ 1 = ρ 2 and continuity equation reduces to
A1V1 =A2V2
QUESTION

The diameters of a pipe at the sections 1 and 2 are 10 cm and 15 cm respectively. Find the discharge through the
pipe if the velocity of water flowing through the pipe at section 1 is 5 m/s. Determine also the velocity at section 2...
Solution:
Given
At section 1,
D 1 =10cm=0.1m
𝝅
A1= 𝟒 𝑫𝟐 = 0.007854 m2
V1= 5m/s
At section 2,
D 2 =15cm=0.15m
𝝅
A2= 𝟒 𝑫𝟐 = 0.01767 m2 Using equation , we have A1V1 = A2V2
𝑨 𝑽
𝑽𝟐 = 𝑨𝟏 𝟏
𝟐
= 2.22 m/s. Ans.
(i) Discharge through pipe is given by equation
or Q = Al X Vl
= 0.007854 X 5 = 0.03927 m3/s. Ans
QUESTION
A 30 cm diameter pipe, conveying water, branches into two pipes of diameters 20 cm and 15 cm respectively. If the
average velocity in the 30 cm diameter pipe is 2.5 m/s, find the discharge in this pipe. Also determine the velocity in
15 cm pipe if the average velocity in 20 cm diameter pipe is 2 m/s..
Solution:
Given
At section 1,
D 1 =30cm=0.3m
𝝅
A1= 𝟒 𝑫𝟐 = = 0.07068 m2
V1= 2.5m/s
At section 2, Let Q1, Q2 and Q3 are discharges in pipe 1, 2 and 3
D 2 =2cm=0.2m respectively. Then according to continuity equation
𝝅 Ql = Q2 + Q3
A2= 𝟒 𝑫𝟐 = 0.0314 m2
(i) The discharge Q1 in pipe 1 is given by 0.1767 = 0.0628 + Q3
V2= 2m/s Q3 = 0.1767- 0.0628 = 0.1139 m3/s
(ii) Q1 = A1V1
At section 3, But Q3 = A3 X V3 = 0.01767 X V3
(iii) =0.07068 X 2.5 m3/s = 0.1767 m3/s. Ans.
D 3 =15cm=0.15m V3=6.44 m/s. Ans.
𝝅 𝟐 (ii) Value of V3
A3= 𝟒 𝑫 = 0.01767 m2 Q2 = A2V2 ==0.628m3/s
V3=? Substituting the values of Q1 and Q2 in equation
QUESTION
Water flows through a pipe AB 1.2 m diameter at 3m/sand then passes through a pipe BC 1.5 m diameter. At C,
the pipe branches. Branch CD is 0.8 m in diameter and carries one third of the flow in AB. The flow velocity in
branch CE is 2.5 m/s. Find the volume rate of flow in AB, the velocity in BC, the velocity in CD and the diameter
of CE
QUESTION

A 25 cm diameter pipe carries oil of sp. gr. 0.9 at a velocity of 3 m/s. At another section the diameter is 20 cm. Find
the velocity at this section and also mass rate of flow of oil.
Solution:
Given
At section 1,
D 1 =25cm=0.25m 20 cm
𝝅
A1= 𝟒 𝑫𝟐 = 0.049 m2 25 cm
V1= 3m/s
At section 2,
D 2 =20cm=0.2m Mass rate of flow of oil =Mass density x Q = p x A 1 x V1
𝝅 𝟐 𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒊𝒍
A2= 𝟒 𝑫 = 0.0314 m2 Sp. gr. of oil = 𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
V2=? Density of oil = Sp. gr. of oil x Density of water
Mass rate of flow of oil = ? =0.9 x 1000 kg/m3
Applying continuity equation at sections 1 and 2, Mass rate of flow = 900 x 0.049 x 3.0 kg/s
𝑨𝟏 𝑽𝟏
AI VI= A2V2 𝑽𝟐 = 𝑨 = 132.23 kg/s. Ans
𝟐
= 4.68 m/s. Ans.
CONTINUITY EQUATION IN THREE-DIMENSIONS

Consider a fluid element of lengths dx, dy and dz in the direction of x, y and z. Let u, v and w are the inlet
velocity components in x, y and z directions respectively.

Mass of fluid entering the face ABCD per second


= ρ x Velocity in x-direction x Area of ABCD
= ρ XU X (dy X dz)
Then mass of fluid leaving the face EFGH per second

Gain of mass in x-direction


= Mass through ABCD - Mass through EFGH per second Similarly, the net gain of mass in y-direction

and in z-direction
CONTINUITY EQUATION IN THREE-DIMENSIONS

Net gain of masses

Since the mass is neither created nor destroyed in the fluid


element, the net increase of mass per unit time in the fluid
element must be equal to the rate of increase of mass of fluid in
the element. But mass of fluid in the element is p. dx. dy. dz and
its rate of increase with time is

or This equation is applicable to :


(i) Steady and unsteady flow,
Equating the two expressions, (ii) Uniform and non-uniform flow, and
(iii) Compressible and incompressible fluids.
𝝏𝝆
For steady flow 𝝏𝒕 =0
and hence equation becomes as
Above Equation is the continuity equation in cartesian co-ordinates in its most
general form.
CONTINUITY EQUATION IN THREE-DIMENSIONS

If the fluid is incompressible, then p is constant and the above


equation becomes as

Above Equation is the continuity equation in three-dimensions.


For a two-dimensional flow, the component
w = 0 and hence continuity equation becomes as
ACCELERATION AND VELOCITY
Let V is the resultant velocity at any point in a fluid flow. Let u, v and w are its component in x, y and z
directions. The velocity components are functions of space-co-ordinates and time.
Mathematically, the velocity components are given as

and Resultant velocity,

Let ax, ay and az are the total acceleration in x, y and z directions respectively. Then by the chain rule of
differentiation, we have
ACCELERATION AND VELOCITY
QUESTION
The velocity vector in a fluid flow is given
V = 4x3i- 10x2yj + 2tk.
Find the velocity and acceleration of a fluid particle at (2, 1, 3) at time t= 1.
Solution.
The velocity components u, v,w are
u = 4x3
v =- 10x2y,
w = 2t
For the point (2, 1, 3). we have x = 2. y = 1 and z = 3 at time t= l.
Hence velocity components at (2, 1, 3) are
u = 4 x (2)^3 = 32 units = 51.26 units. Ans.
v = - 10(2)^2(1) = - 40 units
w = 2 x 1 = 2 units Acceleration is given by equation
Velocity vector V at (2, 1, 3) = 32i- 40j + 2k
Resultant velocity
Now from velocity components, we have

Substituting the values, the acceleration components at (2, 1, 3) at time t = 1 are

= 1536 units Acceleration is

= 320 units. =1536i + 320j + 2k. Ans


Resultant
= 1568.9 units. Ans
= 2 units.
QUESTION
The following cases represent the two velocity components, determine the third component
of velocity such that they satisfy the continuity equation :
or
(i) u = x2 + y2 + z2 ; v = xy2 – yz2 + xy
(ii) v = 2y2, w = 2xyz.
Solution. The continuity equation for incompressible fluid is given by equation as

Case I.
Integration of both sides for w

where constant of integration cannot be a function of z. But it can


be a function of x and y that is f(x, y).
Case II.

Integrate it for u
QUESTION
A fluid flow field is given by

Prove that it is a case of possible steady incompressible fluid flow.


Calculate the velocity and acceleration at the point (2, 1, 3).

Velocity at (2, 1, 3) Acceleration at (2, 1, 3)


= 4i + 3j - 21k. Ans. =28i - 3j + 123k. Ans.
Resultant Velocity Resultant Acceleration
=21.587 units. Ans =126.18 units. Ans
VELOCITY POTENTIAL FUNCTION

It is defined as a scalar function of space and time such that its negative derivative with respect to any direction
gives the fluid velocity in that direction. It is defined by ϕ (Phi). Mathematically, the velocity, potential is
defined as ϕ = f(x, y, z) for steady flow such that
If any value of ϕ
that satisfies the
Laplace
equation, will
where u, v and ware the components of velocity in x, y and z directions respectively. correspond to
some case of
The continuity equation for incompressible steady flow fluid flow.
For two-dimension case

Substituting the values of u, v and w from equation

is a Laplace equation.
ROTATION & VORTICITY
It is defined as the movement of a fluid element in such a way that both of its axes (horizontal as well as vertical)
rotate in the same direction.
It is equal

for a two-dimensional element in x-y plane. The rotational components are

Vorticity.
It is defined as the value twice of the rotation and hence it is given as 2ω
CONDITION FOR ROTATIONAL

As the rotational components are given by

Substituting the values, of u, v and w from equation in the above


rotational components, we get

When rotational components are zero,


the flow is called irrotational. Hence the
properties of the potential function are :
1. If velocity potential (ϕ) exists, the
flow should be irrotational.
If ϕ is continuous function then 2. If velocity potential (ϕ) satisfies the
Laplace equation, it represents the
possible steady incompressible
Therefore, irrotational flow.
STREAM FUNCTION
It is defined as the scalar function of space and time, such that its partial derivative with respect to any direction gives
the velocity component at right angles to that direction.
It is denoted by ψ (Psi) and defined only for two-dimensional flow.
Mathematically, for steady flow it is defined as ' ψ '= f (x, y) such that

As the continuity equation for two-dimensional flow is given as

Substituting the values of u and v in above equation , we get

Hence existence of ψ means a possible case of fluid flow. The flow may be rotational or irrotational.
The rotational component ωz is given by
STREAM FUNCTION
Substituting the values of u and v from equation in the above rotational component, we get

For irrotational flow, ωz = 0. Hence above equation becomes as

which is Laplace equation for ψ


The properties of stream function (ψ) are :
1. If stream function (ψ) exists, it is a possible case of fluid flow which may be rotational or irrotational.
2. If stream function (ψ) satisfies the Laplace equation, it is a possible case of an irrotational flow.
RELATION BETWEEN STREAM FUNCTION AND VELOCITY
POTENTIAL
From Velocity potential

From Stream function

Thus we have

Hence
QUESTION
The velocity potential function(ϕ) is given by an expression

(i) The velocity components u and v are given by equation


(i) Find the velocity components in x and y direction.
(ii) Show that ϕ represents a possible case of flow

Solution.
Given : Similarly,

The partial derivatives of ϕ w.r.t. x and y are

and (ii) The given value of ϕ will represent a possible case of flow
if it satisfies the Laplace equation

Laplace equation is satisfied and hence ϕ represent a possible case of flow. Ans
QUESTION
If for a two-dimensional potential flow, the velocity potential is given by
Φ=x(2y-1)
Determine the velocity at the point P ( 4, 5 ). Determine also the value of stream function ψ at the point P.
Solution.
Given : Φ = x (2y - 1)

Velocity at point P Stream Function,


= - 9i- 8j ψ= y2 – y - x2 Ans
Resultant Velocity Stream Function at point P,
= 12.04 units/sec. Ans. =4 units. Ans
The velocity components in a two-dimensional flow are :

Show that these velocity components represent a possible case of an irrotational flow
DYNAMIC FLOW OF FLUID
The dynamics of fluid flow is the study of fluid motion with the forces causing flow.

The dynamic behaviour of the fluid flow is analysed by the Newton's second law of motion, which relates
the acceleration with the forces. The fluid is assumed to be incompressible and non-viscous

EQUATIONS OF MOTION

According to Newton's second law of motion, the net force Fx acting on a fluid element in the
direction of x is equal to mass m of the fluid element multiplied by the acceleration 𝒂𝒙 in the x-direction.
Thus mathematically,
𝑭𝒙 = 𝒎 ∙ 𝒂𝒙
In the fluid flow, the following forces are present : Thus in equation the net force
(i) Fg, gravity force.
(ii) Fp, the pressure force.
(iii) Fv, force due to viscosity.
(iv) Ft, force due to turbulence.
(v) Fe, force due to compressibility
DYNAMIC FLOW OF FLUID
Thus in equation the net force

(i) If the force due to compressibility, Fc is negligible, the resulting net force

and equation of motions are called Reynold's equations of motion.

(ii) For flow, where (F1) is negligible, the resulting equations of motion are known as Navier-Stokes Equation.

(iii) If the flow is assumed to be ideal, viscous force (Fv) is zero and equation of motions are known as Euler's
equation of motion.
EULER’S EQUATION OF MOTION
This is equation of motion in which the forces due to gravity and pressure are taken into
consideration.
This is derived by considering the motion of a fluid element along a stream-line as :
Consider a stream-line in which flow is taking place ins-direction as shown in Fig.
Consider a cylindrical element of cross-section dA and length ds. The forces acting on the
cylindrical element are:
1. Pressure force pdA in the direction of flow.
𝝏𝒑
2. Pressure force 𝒑 + 𝝏𝒔 𝒅𝒔 𝒅𝑨 opposite to the direction of flow.
3. Weight of element pgdAds.

Let θ is the angle between the direction of flow and the line of action of the weight of element.
The resultant force on the fluid element in the direction of s must be equal to the mass of
fluid element x acceleration in the direction s.
EULER’S EQUATION OF MOTION

This known as Euler's equation of


motion
BERNOULLI'S EQUATION FROM EULER'S EQUATION
Bernoulli's equation is obtained by integrating the Euler's equation of motion as

Assumptions
The following are the assumptions
made in the derivation of Bernoulli's
If flow is incompressible, ρ is constant and equation:
(i) The fluid is ideal, i.e., viscosity is
zero
(ii) The flow is steady
(iii) The flow is incompressible
(iv) The flow is irrotational

Above equation is a Bernoulli's equation in which


QUESTIONS
Water is flowing through a pipe of 5 cm diameter under a pressure of 29.43 N/cm2 (gauge) and with mean velocity of
2.0 m/s. Find the total head or total energy per unit weight of the water at a cross-section, which is 5 m above the
datum line.
Solution.
Given :
Diameter of pipe = 5 cm= 0.5m
Pressure, p = 29.43 N/cm2 = 29.43 x 104 N/m2
Velocity, v = 2.0 m/s
Datum head, z= 5m
Total head = Pressure head + Kinetic head + Total head
𝒑
Pressure head, 𝝆𝒈 = 30 m
𝒗𝟐
Kinetic head, = 0.204 m
𝟐𝒈
Total head, = 35.204 m. Ans
QUESTION
A pipe, through which water is flowing, is having diameters, 20 cm and 10 cm at the cross-sections 1 and 2 respectively.
The velocity of water at section 1 is given 4.0 m/s. Find the velocity head at sections 1 and 2 and also rate of discharge
Solution.
Given :
D1 = 20 cm = 0.2 m
𝝅
Area, A1 =𝟒 𝑫𝟐 = 0.0314 m
Vl = 4.0 m/s
D2 = 10 cm = 0.1 m
𝝅
A2 =𝟒 𝑫𝟐 = .00785 m
𝑽𝟐𝟏
(i) Velocity head at section 1, = 0.815 m. Ans
𝟐𝒈
𝑽𝟐𝟐 (iii) Rate of discharge, Q = A1V1 or A2V2
Velocity head at section 2, ,
𝟐𝒈 = 0.0314 x 4.0
apply continuity equation at 1 and 2, = 0.1256 m3/s = 125.6 litres/s. Ans
A1 V1 = A2V2
(ii) Velocity head at section 2,
V2= 83.047 m. Ans.
QUESTION
The water is flowing through a pipe having diameters 20 cm and 10 cm at sections 1 and 2 respectively. The rate of
flow through pipe is 35 litres/s. The section 1 is 6 m above datum and section 2 is 4 m above datum. If the pressure
at section 1 is 39.24 N/cm2, find the intensity of pressure at section 2.
Solution. Given :
At section 1,
D1 =20cm = 0.2m
𝝅
A1= 𝟒 𝑫𝟐 = 0.0314 m2
Z1 = 6 m
P1=39.24 N/cm2
= 39.24 X 10^4 N/m2
Now,
At section 2,
Q = A 1V1 = A2 V2
D2 =10cm = 0.1m
𝝅 V1=1.114 m/s
A2= 𝟒 𝑫𝟐 = 0.00785 m2 V2=4.456 m/s
Z2 = 4 m Applying Bernoulli's equation at sections 1 and 2, we get
P2 =?
Rate of flow, Q = 35 lit/s p2= 40.27 N/cm2 . Ans
= .035 m3/s
QUESTION
Water is flowing through a pipe having diameter 300 mm and 200 mm at the bottom and upper end respectively.
The intensity of pressure at the bottom end is 24.525 N/cm2 and the pressure at the upper end is 9.81 Nlcm2•
Determine the difference in datum head if the rate of flow through pipe is 40 lit/s.

Difference in datum head = z2 - z1 = 13.70 m. Ans.


QUESTION
The water is flowing through a taper pipe of length 100 m having diameters 600 mm at the upper end and 300 mm at
the lower end, at the rate of 50 litres/s. The pipe has a slope of 1 in 30. Find the pressure at the lower end if the
pressure at the higher level is 19.62 N/cm2
Solution
Given :
Length of pipe, L = 100m
Dia. at the upper end,
D1 = 600 mm = 0.6 m
𝛑
Area, A1= 𝟒 𝐃𝟐 = 0.2827 m2 Let the datum line passes through the centre of the lower end.
p1 = pressure at upper end = 19.62 N/cm2 Then
Dia. at lower end, z2=0
𝟏 𝟏𝟎
D2 = 300 mm = 0.3 m As slope is 1 in 30 means z1 = 𝟑𝟎 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎= 𝟑 𝐦
𝛑
Area, A2= 𝟒 𝐃𝟐 = 0.07068 m2 Q = AlVl = A2V2
p2 = ? vl = 0.177 m/s
Q = rate of flow = 50 litres/s = 0.05 m3/s v2 = 0.707m/s

P2 = 22.857 N/cm2• Ans.


BERNOULLI'S EQUATION FOR REAL FLUID

The Bernoulli's equation was derived on the assumption that fluid is inviscid (non-viscous) and therefore
frictionless.
But all the real fluids are viscous and hence offer resistance to flow.
Thus there are always some losses in fluid flows and hence in the application of Bernoulli's equation, these
losses have to be taken into consideration.

Thus the Bernoulli's equation for real fluids between points 1 and 2 is given as

where hL is loss of energy between points 1 and 2.


QUESTION
A pipe of diameter 400 mm carries water at a velocity of 25 m/s. The pressures at the points A and Bare given as 29.43
N/cm2 and 22.563 N!cm2 respectively while the datum head at A and B are 28 m and 30 m. Find the loss of head
between A and B.
Solution.
Given :
Dia. of pipe, D = 400 mm = 0.4 m
Velocity, V= 25 m/s
At point A,
PA= 29.43 N/cm2 =29.43 x10^4 N/m2
ZA =28m
Total energy at A, At point B,
PB= 22.563 N/cm2 =22.563 x10^4 N/m2
ZB =30m
Total energy at B, Loss of energy = EA- EB
=89.85 m = 89.85-84.85
= 5.0 m. Ans.
= 84.85 m
QUESTION
A pipeline carrying oil of specific gravity 0.87, changes in diameter from 200 mm diameter at a position A to 500 mm
diameter at a position B which is 4 metres at a higher level. If the pressures at A and B are 9.81 Nlcm2 and 5.886
Nlcm2 respectively and the discharge is 200 litres/s determine the loss of head and direction of flow.

(i) Direction of flow. As EA is more than EB and hence flow


is taking place from A to B. Ans.
(ii) Loss of head= hL = EA- E8 = 13.557- 10.948 = 2.609 m.
Ans
LOSS OF ENERGY IN PIPES
When a fluid is flowing through a pipe, the fluid experiences some resistance due to which some of the energy of
fluid is lost. This loss of energy is classified as :

LOSS OF ENERGY (OR HEAD) DUE TO FRICTION


Darcy-Weisbach Formula.
The loss of head (or energy) in pipes due to friction is calculated from Darcy-Weisbach equation which is given by

where hf = loss of head due to friction


LOSS OF ENERGY IN PIPES
Darcy-Weisbach Formula.
The loss of head (or energy) in pipes due to friction is calculated from Darcy-Weisbach equation which is given by

where hf = loss of head due to friction

f = co-efficient of friction which is a function of Reynolds number The Reynolds number is the
𝟏𝟔 ratio of inertial forces to viscous
=𝑹𝒆 for Re < 2000 (viscous flow)
forces within a fluid which is
0.079
= 𝟏 Re varying from 4000 to 10^6 subjected to relative internal
𝑹𝒆𝟒 movement due to different fluid
𝝆𝑽𝑫 𝑽𝑫 velocities. A region where these
𝑹𝒆 = =𝒗 forces change behavior is known
𝝁
as a boundary layer, such as the
L = length of pipe, bounding surface in the interior
V = mean velocity of flow, of a pipe.
D = diameter of pipe.
v= kinematic viscosity
LOSS OF ENERGY IN PIPES
Chezy's Formula for loss of head due to friction in pipes.
in which expression for loss of head due to friction in pipes is derived

where hf = loss of head due to friction,


A = area of cross-section of pipe,
V = mean velocity of flow.

The Equation is known as Chezy's formula. Thus the loss of


head due to friction in pipe from Chezy' s formula can be
obtained if the velocity of flow through pipe and also the
value of Cis known. The value of m for pipe is always equal
to d/4.
LOSS OF ENERGY IN PIPES
Find the head lost due to friction in a pipe of diameter 300 mm and length 50 m,
through which water is flowing at a velocity of 3 m/s using (i) Darcy formula, (ii) Chezy's formula for
which C = 60.
Take v for water = 0.01 stoke
Solution. Given :
Dia. of pipe, d= 300 mm = 0.30 m
Length of pipe ,L= 50 m
Velocity of flow,
V = 3 m/s
Chezy' s constant,C= 60
Kinematic viscosity, v= 0.01 stoke = 0.01 cm2/s (ii) Chezy's Formula. Using equation
= 0.01 x 10^-4 m2/s.
(i) Darcy Formula is given by equation as
where C = 60, m = d/4 = 0.075 m, i=hf/L
hf = 50 x .0333 = 1.665 m. Ans
0.7828 m. Ans
LOSS OF ENERGY IN PIPES
Find the diameter of a pipe of length 2000 m when the rate of flow of water through the pipe is 200 litre sis and
the head lost due to friction is 4 m. Take the value of C = 50 in Chezy’ s formulae.
Solution. Given :
Length of pipe, L= 2000 m
Discharge, Q = 200 litre/s = 0.2 m3/s
Head lost due to friction, h1 = 4 m
Value of Chezy's constant, C =50 Chezy's formula is given by equation
Let the diameter of pipe = d
Velocity of flow, V=Q/A

d= 553 mm. Ans

= .002
QUESTION

A crude oil of kinematic viscosity 0.4 stoke is flowing through a pipe of diameter 300 mm at the rate of 300 litres per
sec. Find the head lost due to friction for a length of 50 m of the pipe.
Solution. Given :
Kinematic viscosity, v = 0.4 stoke= 0.4 cm2/s = .4 x 10--4 m2/s
Dia. of pipe, d = 300 mm = 0.30 m
Discharge, Q = 300 litres/s = 0.3 m3/s
Length of pipe, L=50m
Velocity of flow, V =Q/A
=4.24 m/s
𝑽𝒅
:. Reynolds number, 𝑹𝒆 = 𝒗
= 3.18 X 10^4 hf= 3.61 m. Ans
As Re lies between 4000 and 100000, the value of f is given by

= .00591
QUESTION
An oil of sp. gr. 0. 7 is flowing through a pipe of diameter 300 mm at the rate of 500 litre sis. Find the head lost due
to friction and power required to maintain the flow for a length of 1000 m. Take v = .29 stokes
Solution. Given :
Sp. gr. of oil, S= 0.7
Dia. of pipe, d = 300 mm = 0.3 m
Discharge, Q = 500 litres/s = 0.5 m3/s
Length of pipe, L= 1000 m
Velocity, V=Q/A
= 7.073 m/s
𝑽𝒅
Reynolds number, 𝑹𝒆 = 𝒗
= 7.316 x(l0)^4 hf= 163.18 m
As Re lies between 4000 and 100000, the value of f is given by
Power required
𝝆𝒈𝑸𝒉𝒇
= 0·0048 = 𝑲𝑾
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
= 560.28 kW. Ans
QUESTION
Calculate the discharge through a pipe of diameter 200 mm when the difference of pressure head between the two
ends of a pipe 500 m apart is 4 m of water. Take the value of 'f' = 0.009 in the formula
Solution. Given :
Dia. of pipe, d= 200 mm = 0.20 m
Length of pipe, L= 500m
Difference of pressure head, hf= 4 m of water
f= .009
Using

V=0.934 m/s
:. Discharge, Q = velocity x area
Q= 0.0293 m3/s = 29.3 litres/s. Ans
QUESTION
Water is flowing through a pipe of diameter 200 mm with a velocity of 3 m/s. Find the head lost due to friction for a
length of 5 m if the co-efficient of friction is given by
𝟎. 𝟎𝟗
𝒇 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 + 𝟎.𝟑
𝑹𝒆
where Re is Reynolds number. The kinematic viscosity of water = 0.01 stoke.
Solution. Given :
Dia. of pipe, d= 200 mm = 0.20 m
Velocity, V= 3 m/s
Length, L=5m
Kinematic viscosity, v = 0.01 stoke= .01 x 10^-4m2/s head lost due to friction
𝑽𝒅
:. Reynolds number, 𝑹𝒆 = 𝒗
=6 X 10^5
Value of f
𝟎. 𝟎𝟗 hf= 0.993 m of water. Ans.
𝒇 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 + 𝟎.𝟑
𝑹𝒆
=0.02166
QUESTION
An oil of sp. gr. 0.9 and viscosity 0.06 poise is flowing through a pipe of diameter 200 mm at the rate of 60 litre sis.
Find the head lost due to friction for a 500 m length of pipe. Find the power required to maintain this flow
Solution. Given :
Sp. gr. of oil = 0.9
Viscosity,µ= 0.06 poise = 0.06/10 Ns/m2
Dia. of pipe, d = 200 mm = 0.2 m
Discharge, Q = 60 litres/s = 0.06 m3/s
Velocity, V=Q/A
=1.91 m/s
Length, L= 500 m
Density, p = 0.9 x 1000 = 900 kg/m3 hf= 9.48 m
ρ𝑽𝒅
:. Reynolds number, 𝑹𝒆 =
µ Power required
= 57300 𝝆𝒈𝑸𝒉𝒇
As Re lies between 4000 and 100000, the value of f is given by = 𝑲𝑾
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
= 5.02 kW. Ans
= 0·0051
FRICTION FACTOR FOR LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOWS
IN CIRCULAR PIPES
• The Moody chart or Moody
diagram is a graph in
nondimensional form that relates
the Darcy-Weisbach friction
factor, Reynolds number and
relative roughness for fully
developed flow in a circular pipe.

• The Moody chart is universally


valid for all steady, fully
developed, incompressible pipe
flows
FRICTION FACTOR FOR LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOWS
IN CIRCULAR PIPES
FRICTION FACTOR FOR LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOWS
IN CIRCULAR PIPES

The friction factor can be determined


by its Reynolds number (Re) and the
Relative roughness (e/D) of the Pipe.

( where: e = absolute roughness and D


= diameter of pipe)
LOSSES IN PIPE FLOW
MINOR ENERGY (HEAD) LOSSES
The loss of head or energy due to friction in a pipe is known as major loss while the loss of energy due to change
of velocity of the following fluid in magnitude or direction is called minor loss of energy. The minor loss of energy
(or head) includes the following cases:
These can be categorized as
1. Head loss due to contraction in pipe
Sudden Contraction
Gradual Contraction In case of long pipe the above losses are small as compared
2. Entrance loss with the loss of head due to friction and hence they are
3. Head loss due to enlargement of pipe called minor losses and even may be neglected without
Sudden Enlargement serious error.
Gradual Enlargement
4. Exit loss But in case of a short pipe, these losses are comparable with
5. Head loss due to pipe fittings the loss of head due to friction.
6. Head loss due to bends and elbows
LOSSES IN PIPE FLOW

Sudden Enlargement

Sudden Contraction

Entrance loss

Exit loss

Head loss due to bends and elbows


LOSSES IN PIPE
FLOW
QUESTION
Find the loss of head when a pipe of diameter 200 mm is suddenly enlarged to a diameter of400 mm. The rate of
flow of water through the pipe is 250 litres/s.
Solution
Dia. of smaller pipe, D1= 200 mm = 0.20 m
𝝅
:. Area, A1 = 𝟒 𝑫𝟐𝟏
= 0.03141 m2
Dia. of large pipe, D2 = 400 mm = 0.4 m
𝝅
:. Area, A2 = 𝑫𝟐𝟐 = 0.12564 m2
𝟒
Discharge, Q = 250 litres/s = 0.25 m3/s
Velocity, V1= Q/A1
=7.96 m/s
Velocity, V2=Q/A2
= 1.99 m/s
Loss of head due to enlargement is given by equation

= 1.816 m of water. Ans.


QUESTION
At a sudden enlargement of a water main from 240 mm to 480 mm diameter, the hydraulic gradient rises by 10
mm. Estimate the rate of flow.
Solution But head loss due to enlargement
Dia. of smaller pipe, D1= 240 mm = 0.24 m
𝝅
:. Area, A1 = 𝟒 𝑫𝟐𝟏
= 0.03141 m2 From continuity equation, we have A1 V1 = A2 V2
Dia. of large pipe, D2 = 480 mm = 0.48 m
𝝅
:. Area, A2 = 𝟒 𝑫𝟐𝟐 = 0.12564 m2
Rise of hydraulic gradient*, i.e.,

𝟏 Substituting this value in But head loss due to enlargement we get


= 10 mm =𝟏𝟎𝟎m

Let the rate of flow = Q


Applying Bernoulli's equation to both sections, i.e., Now substituting the value of he and V1 in equation,
smaller pipe section, and large pipe section
QUESTION

Now substituting the value of he and V1 in equation,

V2= 0.1808m/s
Discharge, Q= A2V2
Q= 0.03275 m/s Ans
QUESTION
A horizontal pipe of diameter 500 mm is suddenly contracted to a diameter of 250 mm. The pressure intensities in
the large and smaller pipe is given as 13.734 N/cm2 and 11.772 N/cm2 respectively. Find the loss of head due to
contraction if Cc = 0.62. Also determine the rate of flow of water..
Solution
Dia. of smaller pipe, D1= 500 mm = 0.50 m From continuity equation, we have A1 V1 = A2 V2
𝝅
:. Area, A1 = 𝟒 𝑫𝟐𝟏
= 0.1963 m2
Dia. of large pipe, D2 = 250 mm = 0.25 m Applying Bernoulli's equation before and after contraction,
𝝅 𝟐
:. Area, A2 = 𝟒 𝑫𝟐 = 0.04908 m2
Pressure in large pipe, p 1 = 13.734 N/cm2 = 13.734 X 10^4 N/m2
Pressure in smaller pipe,P2 = 11.772 N/cm2 = 11.772 x 10^4 N/m2 As pipe is horizontal, therefore z1=z2
Cc = 0.62
Head lost due to contraction
V2= 5.467 m/s.
Loss of head due to contraction, hc= 0.571 m. Ans.
Rate of flow of water, Q = A2 V2
= 0.04908 x 5.467 = 0.2683 m3/s = 268.3 lit/s. Ans.
QUESTION
A horizontal pipe of diameter 400 mm is suddenly contracted to a diameter of 200 mm. The pressure intensities in
the large and smaller pipe is given as 13.734 N/cm2 and 11.772 N/cm2 respectively. Find the loss of head due to
contraction if Cc = 0.62. Also determine the rate of flow of water..
Solution
Dia. of smaller pipe, D1= 400 mm = 0.40 m From continuity equation, we have A1 V1 = A2 V2
𝝅
:. Area, A1 = 𝟒 𝑫𝟐𝟏
= 0.1256 m2
Dia. of large pipe, D2 = 200 mm = 0.20 m Applying Bernoulli's equation before and after contraction,
𝝅 𝟐
:. Area, A2 = 𝟒 𝑫𝟐 = 0.0314 m2
Pressure in large pipe, p 1 = 14.715 N/cm2 and = 14.715 X 10^4 N/m2
Pressure in smaller pipe,P2 = 12.753 N/cm2 = 12.753 x 10^4 N/m2 As pipe is horizontal, therefore z1=z2
Cc = 0.62
Head lost due to contraction
V2= 6.469 m/s.
Loss of head due to contraction, hc= 0.799 m. Ans.
Rate of flow of water, Q = A2 V2
= 0.04908 x 5.467 = 0.2031 m3/s = 203.12 lit/s. Ans.
TUTORIAL
Calculate the rate of flow of water through a pipe of diameter 300 mm, when the difference of pressure
head between the two ends of a pipe 400 m apart is 5 m of water. Take the value of f= .009 in the formula
[Ans. 0.101 m3/s]

The discharge through a pipe is 200 litres/s. Find the loss of head when the pipe is suddenly enlarged from
150 mm to 300 mm diameter.
[Ans. 3.672 m]

The rate of flow of water through a horizontal pipe is 0.3 m3/s. The diameter of the pipe is suddenly
enlarged from 250 mm to 500 mm. The pressure intensity in the smaller pipe is 13.734 N/cm2• Determine:
(i) loss of head due to sudden enlargement, (ii) pressure intensity in the large pipe and (iii) power lost due
to enlargement.
[Ans. (i) 1.07 m, (ii) 14.43 N/cm2, (iii) 3.15 kW]
Solution:
(ii) Let the pressure intensity in large pipe p2, then
Discharge, Q =0.3m3/s
applying Bernoulli's eq.
Dia. of smaller pipe, D1= 250 mm = 0.250 m
𝝅
:. Area, A1 = 𝟒 𝑫𝟐𝟏
= 0.049 m2 𝐩𝟐
=14.69m of water
Dia. of large pipe, D2 = 500 mm = 0.500 m 𝝆𝒈
𝝅 P2=14.69x9.81x1000=14.43N/cm2
:. Area, A2 = 𝟒 𝑫𝟐𝟐 = 0.19 m2
Pressure in large pipe, p 1 = 13.734 N/cm2 = 13.734 X 10^4
(iii) Power lost due to sudden enlargement
N/m2
Now velocity, Power required
𝐐 𝟎.𝟑
V1= 𝐀𝟏= .𝟎𝟒𝟗 = 𝟔. 𝟏𝟐𝟐𝐦/𝐬 𝝆𝒈𝑸𝒉
= 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒄 𝑲𝑾
𝐐 𝟎.𝟑
V2= = = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟕𝐦/𝐬 = 3.14 kW. Ans
𝐀𝟐 .𝟏𝟗
(i) Loss of head due to sudden contraction
(𝐕𝟏−𝐕𝟐)𝟐 (𝟔.𝟏𝟐𝟐−𝟏.𝟓𝟕)𝟐
hc= = =1.07m
𝟐𝐠 𝟐𝐱𝟗.𝟖𝟏
Do the following velocity components represent physically possible flows ?
u = x2 + z2 + 5,
v = y2 + z2,
w = 4xyz.
Solution. The continuity equation for incompressible fluid is given by equation as

𝛛𝐮 𝛛𝐯 𝛛𝐰
𝛛𝐮 On substituting the value of 𝛛𝐱, 𝛛𝐲 and in continuity eq.
= 𝟐𝐱 𝛛𝐳
𝛛𝐱 we find
𝛛𝐯 𝛛𝐮 𝛛𝐯 𝛛𝐰
= 𝟐𝐲 + + ≠𝟎
𝛛𝐲 𝛛𝐱 𝛛𝐲 𝛛𝐳
𝛛𝐰 Hence, the continuity eq. for incompressible fluid flow has
= 𝟒𝐱𝐲
𝛛𝐳 not satisfied. Therefore, is no chance of fluid flow.
HYDRAULIC GRADIENT AND TOTAL ENERGY LINE
The concept of hydraulic gradient line and total energy line is very useful in the study of flow of fluids
through pipes. They are defined as :
Hydraulic Gradient Line.
𝑷
It is defined as the line which gives the sum of pressure head 𝒘 and datum head (z) of a flowing
fluid in a pipe with respect to some reference line or it is the line which is obtained by joining the top of all
vertical ordinates, showing the pressure head (p/w) of a flowing fluid in a pipe from the centre of the pipe.
It is briefly written as H.G.L. (Hydraulic Gradient Line).

Total Energy Line.


✓ It is defined as the line which gives the sum of pressure head, datum head and kinetic head of a flowing
fluid in a pipe with respect to some reference line.
✓ It is also defined as the line which is obtained by joining the tops of all vertical ordinates showing the sum
of pressure head and kinetic head from the centre of the pipe.
✓ It is briefly written as T.E.L. (Total Energy Line).
Determine the rate of flow of water through a pipe of diameter 20 cm and length 50 m when one end of the pipe is
connected to a tank and other end of the pipe is open to the atmosphere. The pipe is horizontal and the height of
water in the tank is 4 m above the centre of the pipe. Consider all minor losses and take f =.009 in the formula
Solution.
Dia. of pipe, d = 20 em = 0.20 m
Length of pipe, L= 50 m
Height of water, H=4m
Co-efficient of friction, f= .009
- Let the velocity of water in pipe = V m/s
Applying Bernoulli's equation at the top of the water surface in the tank and at the outlet of pipe, we have
[Taking point 1 on the top and point 2 at the outlet of pipe].

hi=Head lost at entrance of pipe

Considering datum line passing through the centre of pipe V=2.734 m/sec
Q= 0.08589 m/s
= 85.89 litres/s. Ans
L = 50 m, d = 200 mm = 0.2 m
H= 4 m,f= .009
Velocity, V through pipe is calculated and its value is V = 2.
734 m/s
Now, hi =Head lost at entrance of pipe =0.19m
hf = Head loss due to friction =3.42m

(a) Total Energy Line (T.E.L.).


Consider three points, A, Band C on the free surface of
water in
the tank, at the inlet of the pipe and at the outlet of the pipe
respectively as shown in Fig.
Let us find total energy at these points, taking the centre of
pipe as reference line.

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