SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn

2020. B.Tech Sem-III

Lecture 4

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Cyclic Groups

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Cyclic Groups

Let G be a finite group. Consider an element a ∈ G.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Cyclic Groups

Let G be a finite group. Consider an element a ∈ G.

Consider the set H = {a, a2, a3, ....

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Cyclic Groups

Let G be a finite group. Consider an element a ∈ G.

Consider the set H = {a, a2, a3, ....}
Since G is a finite group the set H is also finite.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Cyclic Groups

Let G be a finite group. Consider an element a ∈ G.

Consider the set H = {a, a2, a3, ....}
Since G is a finite group the set H is also finite.
So H is closed and finite. Hence by lemma 4, H is a
subgroup of G.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Cyclic Groups

Let G be a finite group. Consider an element a ∈ G.

Consider the set H = {a, a2, a3, ....}
Since G is a finite group the set H is also finite.
So H is closed and finite. Hence by lemma 4, H is a
subgroup of G.
Let m be the smallest positive integer such that am
= e.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Cyclic Groups

Let G be a finite group. Consider an element a ∈ G.

Consider the set H = {a, a2, a3, ....}
Since G is a finite group the set H is also finite.
So H is closed and finite. Hence by lemma 4, H is a
subgroup of G.
Let m be the smallest positive integer such that am = e.
Then H = {a, a2, a3, ...., am = e} = {a i |1 ≤ i ≤ m}

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Cyclic Groups

Let G be a finite group. Consider an element a ∈ G.

Consider the set H = {a, a2, a3, ....}
Since G is a finite group the set H is also finite.
So H is closed and finite. Hence by lemma 4, H is a
subgroup of G.
Let m be the smallest positive integer such that am = e.
Then H = {a, a2, a3, ...., am = e} = {a i |1 ≤ i ≤ m}
If G = H then G is called the cyclic group generated by
a.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Cyclic Groups

Let G be a finite group. Consider an element a ∈ G.

Consider the set H = {a, a2, a3, ....}
Since G is a finite group the set H is also finite.
So H is closed and finite. Hence by lemma 4, H is a
subgroup of G.
Let m be the smallest positive integer such that am = e.
Then H = {a, a2, a3, ...., am = e} = {a i |1 ≤ i ≤ m}
If G = H then G is called the cyclic group generated by a.
a is called a generator of G. We write G = (a).

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Eg.1
Let G = {1, eiπ/3, e2iπ/3, eiπ , e4iπ/3, e 5iπ/3 }

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Eg.1
Let G = {1, eiπ/3, e2iπ/3, eiπ , e4iπ/3, e 5iπ/3 }
the binary operation is ordinary multiplication of complex
numbers.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Eg.1
Let G = {1, eiπ/3, e2iπ/3, eiπ , e4iπ/3, e 5iπ/3 }
the binary operation is ordinary multiplication of complex
numbers.
G is a cyclic group of order 6. The generators of G are

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Eg.1
Let G = {1, eiπ/3, e2iπ/3, eiπ , e4iπ/3, e 5iπ/3 }
the binary operation is ordinary multiplication of complex
numbers.
G is a cyclic group of order 6. The generators of G are
eiπ/3 and e5iπ/3.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Eg.1
Let G = {1, eiπ/3, e2iπ/3, eiπ , e4iπ/3, e 5iπ/3 }
the binary operation is ordinary multiplication of complex
numbers.
G is a cyclic group of order 6. The generators of G are
e iπ/3 and e 5iπ/3.

Eg.2
Z4 is a cyclic group with generators 1 and 3.
But K4 is not a cyclic group.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Eg.1
Let G = {1, eiπ/3, e2iπ/3, eiπ , e4iπ/3, e 5iπ/3 }
the binary operation is ordinary multiplication of complex
numbers.
G is a cyclic group of order 6. The generators of G are
eiπ/3 and e5iπ/3.

Eg.2
Z4 is a cyclic group with generators 1 and 3.
But K4 is not a cyclic group.
Eg. 3
Z12 = {0, 1, 2, ......, 11} with group
operation as addition
modulo 12.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Eg.1
Let G = {1, eiπ/3, e2iπ/3, eiπ , e4iπ/3, e 5iπ/3 }
the binary operation is ordinary multiplication of complex
numbers.
G is a cyclic group of order 6. The generators of G are
eiπ/3 and e5iπ/3.

Eg.2
Z4 is a cyclic group with generators 1 and 3.
But K4 is not a cyclic group.
Eg. 3
Z12 = {0, 1, 2, ......, 11} with group
operation as addition
modulo 12.
This is a cyclic group. The generators are

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Eg.1
Let G = {1, eiπ/3, e2iπ/3, eiπ , e4iπ/3, e 5iπ/3 }
the binary operation is ordinary multiplication of complex
numbers.
G is a cyclic group of order 6. The generators of G are
eiπ/3 and e5iπ/3.

Eg.2
Z4 is a cyclic group with generators 1 and 3.
But K4 is not a cyclic group.
Eg. 3
Z12 = {0, 1, 2, ......, 11} with group
operation as addition
modulo 12.
This is a cyclic group. The generators are
1,

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Eg.1
Let G = {1, eiπ/3, e2iπ/3, eiπ , e4iπ/3, e 5iπ/3 }
the binary operation is ordinary multiplication of complex
numbers.
G is a cyclic group of order 6. The generators of G are
eiπ/3 and e5iπ/3.

Eg.2
Z4 is a cyclic group with generators 1 and 3.
But K4 is not a cyclic group.
Eg. 3
Z12 = {0, 1, 2, ......, 11} with group
operation as addition
modulo 12.
This is a cyclic group. The generators are
1, 5,

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Eg.1
Let G = {1, eiπ/3, e2iπ/3, eiπ , e4iπ/3, e 5iπ/3 }
the binary operation is ordinary multiplication of complex
numbers.
G is a cyclic group of order 6. The generators of G are
eiπ/3 and e5iπ/3.

Eg.2
Z4 is a cyclic group with generators 1 and 3.
But K4 is not a cyclic group.
Eg. 3
Z12 = {0, 1, 2, ......, 11} with group
operation as addition
modulo 12.
This is a cyclic group. The generators are
1, 5, 7,

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Eg.1
Let G = {1, eiπ/3, e2iπ/3, eiπ , e4iπ/3, e 5iπ/3 }
the binary operation is ordinary multiplication of complex
numbers.
G is a cyclic group of order 6. The generators of G are
eiπ/3 and e5iπ/3.

Eg.2
Z4 is a cyclic group with generators 1 and 3.
But K4 is not a cyclic group.
Eg. 3
Z12 = {0, 1, 2, ......, 11} with group
operation as addition
modulo 12.
This is a cyclic group. The generators are
1, 5, 7, and 11

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Eg.1
Let G = {1, eiπ/3, e2iπ/3, eiπ , e4iπ/3, e 5iπ/3 }
the binary operation is ordinary multiplication of complex
numbers.
G is a cyclic group of order 6. The generators of G are
eiπ/3 and e5iπ/3.

Eg.2
Z4 is a cyclic group with generators 1 and 3.
But K4 is not a cyclic group.
Eg. 3
Z12 = {0, 1, 2, ......, 11} with group
operation as addition
modulo 12.
This is a cyclic group. The generators are
1, 5, 7, and 11
(Zn, ⊕) is a cyclic group for all integers n
≥ 0.
SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-
Cyclic Subgroups

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Cyclic Subgroups

Cyclic subgroups of Z12 = {0, 1, 2, 3, .....,

11} Consider the element 2.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Cyclic Subgroups

Cyclic subgroups of Z12 = {0, 1, 2, 3, .....,

11} Consider the element 2.
21 = 2,

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Cyclic Subgroups

Cyclic subgroups of Z12 = {0, 1, 2, 3, .....,

11} Consider the element 2.
21 = 2, 22 = 4,

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Cyclic Subgroups

Cyclic subgroups of Z12 = {0, 1, 2, 3, .....,

11} Consider the element 2.
21 = 2, 22 = 4, 23 = 6,

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Cyclic Subgroups

Cyclic subgroups of Z12 = {0, 1, 2, 3, .....,

11} Consider the element 2.
21 = 2, 22 = 4, 23 = 6, 24 = 8,

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Cyclic Subgroups

Cyclic subgroups of Z12 = {0, 1, 2, 3, .....,

11} Consider the element 2.
21 = 2, 22 = 4, 23 = 6, 24 = 8, 25 = 10,

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Cyclic Subgroups

Cyclic subgroups of Z12 = {0, 1, 2, 3, .....,

11} Consider the element 2.
21 = 2, 22 = 4, 23 = 6, 24 = 8, 25 = 10, 26
=

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Cyclic Subgroups

Cyclic subgroups of Z12 = {0, 1, 2, 3, .....,

11} Consider the element 2.
21 = 2, 22 = 4, 23 = 6, 24 = 8, 25 = 10, 26
=0

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Cyclic Subgroups

Cyclic subgroups of Z12 = {0, 1, 2, 3, .....,

11} Consider the element 2.
21= 2, 22 = 4, 23 = 6, 24 = 8, 25 = 10, 26
=0
The subset {0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10} is a cyclic
subgroup of Z12
generated by 2.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Cyclic Subgroups

Cyclic subgroups of Z12 = {0, 1, 2, 3, .....,

11} Consider the element 2.
21= 2, 22 = 4, 23 = 6, 24 = 8, 25 = 10, 26
=0
The subset {0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10} is a cyclic
subgroup of Z12
generated by 2.
The same subgroup is also generated by the
element 10.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Cyclic Subgroups

Cyclic subgroups of Z12 = {0, 1, 2, 3, .....,

11} Consider the element 2.
21= 2, 22 = 4, 23 = 6, 24 = 8, 25 = 10, 26
=0
The subset {0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10} is a cyclic
subgroup of Z12
generated by 2.
The same subgroup is also generated by the
element 10.
The other cyclic subgroups are
{0, 3, 6, 9} generated by 3 or 9.
{0, 4, 8} generated by 4 or 8.
{0, 6} generated by 6.
SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-
Infinite cyclic groups:

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Infinite cyclic groups:
Let G be an infinite group and let a ∈
G.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Infinite cyclic groups:
Let G be an infinite group and let a ∈ G.
Suppose am ƒ= e for any positive integer
m.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Infinite cyclic groups:
Let G be an infinite group and let a ∈ G.
Suppose am ƒ= e for any positive integer m.
We define a0 = e and

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Infinite cyclic groups:
Let G be an infinite group and let a ∈ G.
Suppose am ƒ= e for any positive integer m.
We define a0 = e and a − k = (a −1 )k for k > 0.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Infinite cyclic groups:
Let G be an infinite group and let a ∈ G.
Suppose am ƒ= e for any positive integer
m.
We define a0 = e and a − k = (a−1 )k for k > 0. Now
consider the set
H = {...., a−3 , a −2 , a−1 , a0 = e, a, a2, a3, ....}
= {a i |i ∈ Z}

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Proposition 3:
Let (G, ∗) be a group and a ∈ G. Then the set
i
H = {a |i ∈ Z} is a subgroup of G.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Proposition 3:
Let (G, ∗) be a group and a ∈ G. Then the set
i
H = {a |i ∈ Z} is a subgroup of G. It is called the
cyclic subgroup of G generated by a, denoted as (a).

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Proposition 3:
Let (G, ∗) be a group and a ∈ G. Then the set
i
H = {a |i ∈ Z} is a subgroup of G. It is called the
cyclic subgroup of G generated by a, denoted as (a).
Proof: Let ai1 and ai2 ∈ H

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Proposition 3:
Let (G, ∗) be a group and a ∈ G. Then the set
i
H = {a |i ∈ Z} is a subgroup of G. It is called the
cyclic subgroup of G generated by a, denoted as (a).
Proof: Let ai1 and ai2 ∈ H
Then ai1 ∗ai2 = ai1+i2 ∈ H since i1 + i2 ∈ Z.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Proposition 3:
Let (G, ∗) be a group and a ∈ G. Then the set
i
H = {a |i ∈ Z} is a subgroup of G. It is called the
cyclic subgroup of G generated by a, denoted as (a).
Proof: Let ai1 and ai2 ∈ H
Then ai1 ∗ai2 = ai1+i2 ∈ H since i1 + i2 ∈ Z.
So H is closed under the group operation
∗.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Proposition 3:
Let (G, ∗) be a group and a ∈ G. Then the set
i
H = {a |i ∈ Z} is a subgroup of G. It is called the
cyclic subgroup of G generated by a, denoted as (a).
Proof: Let ai1 and ai2 ∈ H
Then ai1 ∗ ai2 = ai1+i2 ∈ H since i1 + i2 ∈ Z.
So H is closed under the group operation ∗.
Consider ai ∈ H

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Proposition 3:
Let (G, ∗) be a group and a ∈ G. Then the set
i
H = {a |i ∈ Z} is a subgroup of G. It is called the
cyclic subgroup of G generated by a, denoted as (a).
Proof: Let ai1 and ai2 ∈ H
Then ai1 ∗ ai2 = ai1+i2 ∈ H since i1 + i2 ∈ Z.
So H is closed under the group operation ∗.
Consider ai ∈ H
Then (ai ) − 1 =

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Proposition 3:
Let (G, ∗) be a group and a ∈ G. Then the set
i
H = {a |i ∈ Z} is a subgroup of G. It is called the
cyclic subgroup of G generated by a, denoted as (a).
Proof: Let ai1 and ai2 ∈ H
Then ai1 ∗ ai2 = ai1+i2 ∈ H since i1 + i2 ∈ Z.
So H is closed under the group operation ∗.
Consider ai ∈ H
Then (ai ) − 1 = (a −1 ) i =

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Proposition 3:
Let (G, ∗) be a group and a ∈ G. Then the set
i
H = {a |i ∈ Z} is a subgroup of G. It is called the
cyclic subgroup of G generated by a, denoted as (a).
Proof: Let ai1 and ai2 ∈ H
Then ai1 ∗ ai2 = ai1+i2 ∈ H since i1 + i2 ∈ Z.
So H is closed under the group operation ∗.
Consider ai ∈ H
Then (ai ) − 1 = (a −1 ) i = a − i

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Proposition 3:
Let (G, ∗) be a group and a ∈ G. Then the set
i
H = {a |i ∈ Z} is a subgroup of G. It is called the
cyclic subgroup of G generated by a, denoted as (a).
Proof: Let ai1 and ai2 ∈ H
Then ai1 ∗ ai2 = ai1+i2 ∈ H since i1 + i2 ∈ Z.
So H is closed under the group operation ∗.
Consider ai ∈ H
Then (ai ) − 1 = (a −1 )i = a − i
Since −i ∈ Z, a − i ∈ H.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Proposition 3:
Let (G, ∗) be a group and a ∈ G. Then the set
i
H = {a |i ∈ Z} is a subgroup of G. It is called the
cyclic subgroup of G generated by a, denoted as (a).
Proof: Let ai1 and ai2 ∈ H
Then ai1 ∗ ai2 = ai1+i2 ∈ H since i1 + i2 ∈ Z.
So H is closed under the group operation ∗.
Consider ai ∈ H
Then (ai ) − 1 = (a −1 )i = a − i
Since −i ∈ Z, a − i ∈ H.
So H is closed and every element in H has its inverse in G.
So H is a subgroup of G by lemma 4.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Proposition 3:
Let (G, ∗) be a group and a ∈ G. Then the set
i
H = {a |i ∈ Z} is a subgroup of G. It is called the
cyclic subgroup of G generated by a, denoted as (a).
Proof: Let ai1 and ai2 ∈ H
Then ai1 ∗ ai2 = ai1+i2 ∈ H since i1 + i2 ∈ Z.
So H is closed under the group operation ∗.
Consider ai ∈ H
Then (ai ) − 1 = (a −1 ) i = a − i
Since −i ∈ Z, a − i ∈ H.
So H is closed and every element in H has its inverse in G.
So H is a subgroup of G by lemma 4.
Note that we don’t distinguish between finite and infinite
cyclic groups.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Proposition 3:
Let (G, ∗) be a group and a ∈ G. Then the set
i
H = {a |i ∈ Z} is a subgroup of G. It is called the
cyclic subgroup of G generated by a, denoted as (a).
Proof: Let ai1 and ai2 ∈ H
Then ai1 ∗ ai2 = ai1+i2 ∈ H since i1 + i2 ∈ Z.
So H is closed under the group operation ∗.
Consider ai ∈ H
Then (ai ) − 1 = (a −1 ) i = a − i
Since −i ∈ Z, a − i ∈ H.
So H is closed and every element in H has its inverse in G.
So H is a subgroup of G by lemma 4.
Note that we don’t distinguish between finite and infinite
cyclic groups.
The finite cyclic groups are a special case of the general
definition of cyclic groups with am = e for some positive
integer m
SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-
Proposition 3:
Let (G, ∗) be a group and a ∈ G. Then the set
i
H = {a |i ∈ Z} is a subgroup of G. It is called the
cyclic subgroup of G generated by a, denoted as (a).
Proof: Let ai1 and ai2 ∈ H
Then ai1 ∗ ai2 = ai1+i2 ∈ H since i1 + i2 ∈ Z.
So H is closed under the group operation ∗.
Consider ai ∈ H
Then (ai ) − 1 = (a −1 ) i = a − i
Since −i ∈ Z, a − i ∈ H.
So H is closed and every element in H has its inverse in G.
So H is a subgroup of G by lemma 4.
Note that we don’t distinguish between finite and infinite
cyclic groups.
The finite cyclic groups are a special case of the general
definition of cyclic groups with am = e for some positive
integer m and a − 1 = a m − 1 .
SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-
Examples of infinite cyclic groups:
(Z+),

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Examples of infinite cyclic groups:
(Z+), (nZ, +), n ∈ Z

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Examples of infinite cyclic groups:
(Z+), (nZ, +), n ∈ Z
Z +
(a , ×) where a ∈ R

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Examples of infinite cyclic groups:
(Z+), (nZ, +), n ∈ Z
Z +
(a , ×) where a ∈ R
({ein |n ∈ Z}, ×)

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Examples of infinite cyclic groups:
(Z+), (nZ, +), n ∈ Z
(aZ, ×) where a ∈ R+
({ein |n ∈ Z}, ×)
Here the identity element is 1 obtained from n = 0.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Examples of infinite cyclic groups:
(Z+), (nZ, +), n ∈ Z
Z +
(a , ×) where a ∈ R
({ein |n ∈ Z}, ×)
Here the identity element is 1 obtained from n = 0. The
generator is ei .

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Examples of infinite cyclic groups:
(Z+), (nZ, +), n ∈ Z
Z +
(a , ×) where a ∈ R
({ein |n ∈ Z}, ×)
Here the identity element is 1 obtained from n = 0. The
generator is ei . The inverse of an element ein is e − i n

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Examples of infinite cyclic groups:
(Z+), (nZ, +), n ∈ Z
Z +
(a , ×) where a ∈ R
({ein |n ∈ Z}, ×)
Here the identity element is 1 obtained from n = 0. The
generator is ei . The inverse of an element ein is e − i n
As n takes higher and higher values from Z, the unit circle
on the complex plane gets densely filled up.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Examples of infinite cyclic groups:
(Z+), (nZ, +), n ∈ Z
Z +
(a , ×) where a ∈ R
({ein |n ∈ Z}, ×)
Here the identity element is 1 obtained from n = 0. The
generator is ei . The inverse of an element ein is e − i n
As n takes higher and higher values from Z, the unit circle
on the complex plane gets densely filled up.
The elements of the group once generated will never
repeat for any higher n.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Examples of infinite cyclic groups:
(Z+), (nZ, +), n ∈ Z
Z +
(a , ×) where a ∈ R
({ein |n ∈ Z}, ×)
Here the identity element is 1 obtained from n = 0. The
generator is ei . The inverse of an element ein is e − i n
As n takes higher and higher values from Z, the unit circle
on the complex plane gets densely filled up.
The elements of the group once generated will never
repeat for any higher n.
It is an infinite cyclic group.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Examples of infinite cyclic groups:
(Z+), (nZ, +), n ∈ Z
Z +
(a , ×) where a ∈ R
({ein |n ∈ Z}, ×)
Here the identity element is 1 obtained from n = 0. The
generator is ei . The inverse of an element ein is e − i n
As n takes higher and higher values from Z, the unit circle
on the complex plane gets densely filled up.
The elements of the group once generated will never
repeat for any higher n.
It is an infinite cyclic group.
π
({e in 6 |n ∈ Z},
×)

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Examples of infinite cyclic groups:
(Z+), (nZ, +), n ∈ Z
Z +
(a , ×) where a ∈ R
({ein |n ∈ Z}, ×)
Here the identity element is 1 obtained from n = 0. The
generator is ei . The inverse of an element ein is e − i n
As n takes higher and higher values from Z, the unit circle
on the complex plane gets densely filled up.
The elements of the group once generated will never
repeat for any higher n.
It is an infinite cyclic group.
π
({e in 6 |n ∈ Z}, ×) is finite, not an infinite cyclic
group.
It is a cyclic group of order 12.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Def.Order of an element:

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Def.Order of an element:
Let (G, ∗) be a group and a ∈
G.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Def.Order of an element:
Let (G, ∗) be a group and a ∈ G. The smallest positive
integer m such that am = e is called the order of a in G,

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Def.Order of an element:
Let (G, ∗) be a group and a ∈ G. The smallest positive
integer m such that am = e is called the order of a in G,
denoted as o(a) = m or |a| = m.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Def.Order of an element:
Let (G, ∗) be a group and a ∈ G. The smallest positive
integer m such that am = e is called the order of a in G,
denoted as o(a) = m or |a| = m.
o(a) is also defined as the order of the cyclic subgroup
generated by a.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-

Def.Order of an element:
Let (G, ∗) be a group and a ∈ G. The smallest positive
integer m such that am = e is called the order of a in G,
denoted as o(a) = m or |a| = m.
o(a) is also defined as the order of the cyclic subgroup
generated by a.
If G = (a) then o(G) = o(a).

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra: Autumn 2020. B.Tech Sem-