FACTOR GROUP

COMPUTATIONS
AND
SIMPLE GROUPS
By: KAREN M. GARDOSE
To start with:
Factor groups can be a tough topic for students to grasp. There is
nothing like a bit of computation to strengthen understanding in
Mathematics. We start by attempting to improve our intuition concerning
factor groups. Since we will be dealing with normal subgroups, we often
denote a subgroup of G by N rather than H.
To start with:
Let N be a normal subgroup of G. In the factor group G/N, the subgroup
N acts as identity element. We may regard N as being collapsed to a single
element, either to 0 in additive notation or to e in multiplicative notation.

This collapsing of N together with the algebraic structure of G require

the other subset of G, namely the cosets of N, also collapse into a single
element in the factor group.
 To start with:
A visualization of collapsing is shown in Figure 15.1

We can view the line G/N at the bottom of the figure as

obtained by collapsing to a point each coset of N in another
copy of G.

Each point of G/N thus corresponds to whole vertical line

segment in the shaded portion, representing a coset of N in G.
It is crucial to remember that multiplication of cosets in G/N
can be computed by multiplying G, using any representative
elements of the cosets.
Let us review what are normal subgroups:
Group: Integers which are closed under +

Subgroups: , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , …

5 = {…, -10, -5, 0, 5, 10, …}

1+5 = {…-9, -4, 1, 6, 11,…}
2+5 = {…-8, -3, 2, 7, 12,…}
3+5
4+5 = {…, - 6, -1, 4, 11, 14,…}

We use 5 to partition our group .

5 is a “normal subgroup” because cosets forms a group called the factor groups or
quotient group.
 Example:
1. /<3>
={0,1,2,3,4,5} <3> = {0,3}
0+<3> = {0,3}
1+<3> = {1, 4}
2+<3> = {2, 5}
/<3> has 3 elements
/<3>
 Examples 1. :

Group: Integers which are closed under +

Subgroups:
={0}
1+N={1}
2+N={2}
3+N={3}
4+N={4}
.
:
Examples 2. :
Examples 2. :
Note that every subgroup H containing just half the elements of of finite
group G must be a normal subgroup.

Example: where is the group of permutations on n elements

is the group of all even permutations on n elements.

, therefore is a normal subgroup of .

Lemma:
If G is a finite group and N is a subgroup of G where |N| = |G|/2, then N is
a normal subgroup of G.
 We now turn to several examples that compute factor
groups. Computing such a factor group means classifying it
according to Theorem 11.12.
1. Compute the factor group

elements, and must have order 4.

1. Compute the factor group

=
1. Compute the factor group

{}
}
}
1. Compute the factor group

ℤ𝟒 = {𝟎 , 𝟏 ,𝟐 , 𝟑 }
{}
}
2. Compute the factor group

Now (0,2) generates the subgroup H of of order 3.

2. Compute the factor group

=
2. Compute the factor group

{}

{}

{}
Theorem: A factor group of a cyclic group is cyclic.
3. Compute the factor group

Now (0,1) generates the subgroup H of of order 4.

3. Compute the factor group

=
3. Compute the factor group

{}
3. Compute the factor group

Now (2,3) generates the subgroup H of of order 2.

3. Compute the factor group

=
3. Compute the factor group
3. Compute the factor group
 SIMPLE GROUPS

Definition: A group is simple if it is nontrivial and has no proper nontrivial normal

subgroups.
 Let us discuss...

−1
𝑁≤𝐺𝑖𝑠𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑓 𝑔•𝑁•𝑔 =𝑁𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝜖𝐺.
 Let us discuss...

- Trivial subgroup:{e} trivial normal subgroup of G

- Entire subgroup: G improper normal subgroup of G

G is a simple group if its only normal subgroups are {e} and G. And
simple groups are the building blocks of the finite groups.
 Let us discuss...

The group  of integers mod p is simple, for p a positive

prime number. This is clear by Lagrange's theorem, since the
order of a subgroup N divides p, so it is either 1 or p. So ​ has
no nontrivial proper subgroups (since it is abelian, all
subgroups are automatically normal).
 Let us discuss...

The alternating group

Let us discuss...
 Let us discuss...

● Definition: A maximal normal subgroup of a group

G is a normal subgroup M not equal to G such that
there is no proper normal subgroup N of G properly
containing M.
Let us discuss...
Thank
you!