INFORMATION

TECHNOLOGY FOR
COMMERCE
BCOM-111
UNIT-1
 OVERVIEW
• PART-I Introduction to Computers
• Parts of Computers
• Servers
• Computer Hardware (H/W) Setup, Configuration
• Networking
• Mobile H/W Device and types
• PART-II Networking
• LAN
• WAN
• WWW
• Wireless
• PART-III Computer & Mobile Operating Systems
• PART-IV Application Usage of Payment Gateways
• PART-V Basic terminology of databases & Communication through Internet
Introduction to Computers
• The computer is an electronic device for performing
arithmetic and logical operations. It is a device or flexible
machine to process data and converts it into information.
• A computer is programmable, meaning that it all depends
upon what program it is using for performing a particular
function.
• Computers are not only used for the purpose of calculations.
• An accountant or a grocery shop owner or a bank or an ATM
uses it like a computational device, an author uses it as a
writing tool, a musician as a device for controlling music,
kids as a machine for playing games and so on
 Basic Components of Computer

• A computer device is made up of various elements which help in its effective

functioning and processing.
• The Five Basic Operations of a Computer System
• § Inputting. The process of entering data and instructions into the computer system
• § Storing. Saving data and instructions to make them readily available for initial or
additional processing whenever required
• § Processing. Performing arithmetic operations (add, subtract, multiply, divide, etc.) or
logical operations (comparisons like equal to, less than, greater than, etc.) on data to
convert them into useful information
• § Outputting. The process of producing useful information or results for the user such
as a printed report or visual display
• § Controlling. Directing the manner and sequence in which all of the above operations
are performed.
Basic Components of Computer
 Functions of Different Units of Computer

Input Unit
• An input unit of a computer system performs the following functions:
• 1. It accepts (or reads) instructions and data from the outside world
• 2. It converts these instructions and data into a computer-acceptable form
• 3. It supplies the converted instructions and data to the computer system for further processing.
Output Unit
An output unit of a computer system performs the following functions:
1. It accepts the results produced by the computer, which are in coded form and
hence, cannot be easily understood by us
2. It converts these coded results to human acceptable (readable) form
3. It supplies the converted results to the outside world
Storage Unit
The storage unit of a computer system holds (or stores) the following :
1. Data and instructions required for processing (received from input devices)
2. Intermediate results of processing
3. Final results of processing, before they are released to an output device
 Functions of Different Units of Computer

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

The Arithmetic Logic Unit of a computer system is the place where the actual executions of instructions take
place during the processing operation.
Control Unit (CU)
The Control Unit of a computer system manages and coordinates the operations of all other components of the
computer system
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
§ It is the brain of a computer system
§ It is responsible for controlling the operations of all other units of a computer system
 Servers
• Servers are high-powered computers built to store,
process, and manage network data, devices, and
systems.
• Servers are the engines powering organizations by
providing network devices and systems with
adequate resources.
• For businesses, servers offer critical scalability,
efficiency, and business continuity capabilities.
• Whether it’s hosting a data-heavy website, setting up
a shared drive for a department, or managing
thousands of queries every minute, servers are the
vehicles for hosting and processing-intensive
workloads that go beyond the capabilities of a
traditional computer.
 Servers
What Does a Server Do?
• Servers can do everything a standard desktop
computer can do and more. Vice-versa,
computers can run server processes, but do so
far less productively. Generally, servers offer the
following features to the networks they serve:
• Scalability to serve a growing or fluctuating
number of devices, users, and workloads
• High processing power with rising CPU and RAM
specifications to handle network workloads
• Reliability to ensure critical systems remain
online and available
• Collaboration between personnel with access to
shared network resources
• Cost savings over time because servers can
reduce stress on network devices
 Servers
The Client-Server Model
• Servers that power other devices on the network are referred to as host servers.
• The in-network devices receiving resources from the host server are known as clients.
• The following graphic offers a quick look at how servers and clients work within a network.
 Servers
Types of Server: The following is a list of all the main types of servers:

1. Web server 8. Proxy server

9. File transfer protocol (FTP)
2. Virtual machine (VM)
server
3. Application server 10. File server
4. Database server 11. Mail server
12. Domain name system (DNS)
5. Print server
server
6. Collaboration server 13. Gaming server
7. Monitoring and management
server  
 Servers
Types of Server: The following is a list of all the main types of servers:

1. Web server
• An open-source web server is used for accessing the world wide web through
public domain software.
• These servers connect stored information from an internet website to your own
computer.
• Web servers store information for the internet that is retrieved via "HTTP" code
and sent to your web browser.
• This is one of the most widely used types of servers.
2. Virtual machine (VM)
• As their name suggests, virtual machines store and connect data strictly through
virtual space.
• To create a virtual machine, IT teams use a hypervisor, also known as a virtual
machine monitor (VMM), which is software that can run thousands of virtual
machines through only one piece of physical hardware.
• This method of server virtualization is widely used for data transfer and storage
because they are the most cost-effective type of server to run.
 Servers
Types of Server: The following is a list of all the main types of
servers:

3. Application server
• These servers connect clients to software applications through
virtual server connections.
• This allows users to bypass downloading data to their own
hardware in order to access applications.
• Application servers can effectively host large amounts of
application data to many users at once, making them ideal for
businesses.
• 4. Database Server
• Database servers function as large storage spaces that
organizations use and access to run multiple programs to meet
their needs.
• A database server can run independently of any database
architecture.
 Servers
Types of Server: The following is a list of all the main types
of servers:

5. Print Server
• A print server connects remotely to local computers to print
through a network.
• These servers give businesses the ability to use a single
printer to serve an entire department.
• Some printers even come with their own built-in server
ready to join a network once they're installed in an office
area.

6. Collaboration Server
When work needs to be shared across multiple users, a
collaboration server makes it easy to connect. These servers
allow you to share and store files, applications and other large
amounts of data.
 Servers
Types of Server: The following is a list of all the main types of
servers:

7. Monitoring & Management Server

• Monitoring and management servers function in several
capacities. First, they record and track digital transactions and
receive user requests. Others simply monitor and don't actively
participate in user operations.
• Monitoring servers are responsive to network administrators
who survey network health to check for threats or bugs in the
system.
8. Proxy Server
• Proxy servers act as a bridge between a host server and a
client-server.
• A proxy sends data from a website to your computer IP address
after it passes through the proxy's server.
• This practice adds a layer of security since the information is
requested and then transferred from the source to the proxy
server and never directly from a client to another user.
• A proxy server can filter out various harmful internet entities.
 Servers
Types of Server: The following is a list of all the main types of
servers:

9. FTP Server
• File transfer protocol (FTP) servers are used to relocate files
from one computer to another.
• Uploaded files move from your computer to the server while
downloaded files are extracted from the server onto your
device.
• File transfer protocol also refers to the method of using a
server to connect one computer to another in order to share
data safely.
10. File Server
• A file server stores data files for multiple users. They allow for
faster data retrieval and saving or writing files to a computer.
• This is a basic type of server used commonly by organizations
where lots of users need access to files that are more
conveniently and safely stored on a server than a personal
computer.
 Servers
Types of Server: The following is a list of all the main types of
servers:
11. Mail Server
A mail server stores and delivers mail for clients through email
service platforms. Because mail servers are set up to continually
connect to a network, individual users can access their email without
running any systems through their own devices.
12. Domain Name System (DNS) Server
These servers transform readable computer domain names into
computer language IP addresses. The DNS server takes search data
from a user and finds the requested address to deliver to the client
device. (for example, www.amazon.com) to machine-readable IP
addresses (for example, 192.0. 2.44).
13. Gaming Server
Large gaming networks use servers to connect users from around the
world. These servers host multi-player online games.
 Computer Hardware (H/W) Setup, Configuration

• What is hardware configuration?

• Hardware configuration is the system resource settings assigned to a particular device.
According to IBM, hardware configuration allows you to define I/O (input/output) configurations
to both the software and hardware from a single, interactive surface. What this means is that
computer specialists have the ability to improve hardware performance by tweaking certain
configurations. 
• Hardware devices have particular configuration settings that can impact your system’s overall
functionality and performance.
• Device configurations include accessible memory, connected devices, disc drivers, modems/serial
ports, as well as some power management features. 
 
• What is the difference between hardware and software configuration?
• Computer hardware and software are two different components that make up a computer system.
• Software needs a hardware device to run on, and hardware without software is just a glorified
paperweight.
• While one needs the other to function, hardware and software configuration have different
functions and abilities.
• For instance, hardware deals with tangible parts that have a myriad of different functions while
software mainly deals with hundreds of lines of code to implement a certain process. 
 Computer Hardware (H/W) Setup, Configuration

Benefits of Hardware Configuration

The general benefits of hardware configuration:
• Easier maintenance and management
• Better organization especially for larger companies
• Predictable costs 
• Increased reliability
• Mitigate risk which could result in downtime
Hardware configuration management is a continuous process where your IT
department or your IT services provider helps you manage your hardware
maintenance costs and give room to the upgrades that make sense at a
certain period of time.
Usually, IT directors and managed IT services providers develop IT
strategies that help extend the life of your company’s IT hardware and
maximize its value through regular maintenance and monitoring.
 Computer Hardware (H/W) Setup, Configuration

Configuration Management System

• For managed IT service providers, configuration management (CM) is
an important responsibility that ensures the health of a company’s
various computer hardware and software, servers, and overall network.
• CM aims to establish and maintain consistency of a product’s
performance, functional, and physical attributes with its requirements,
design, and operational information throughout its life.
• CM deals with a lot of automation to determine a standard operating
environment (SOE) without the need to do every process manually
which could be time-consuming.
• Having a solid configuration management system allows a company to
accurately keep track of everything that’s going on in its systems.
 Computer Hardware (H/W) Setup, Configuration

With newer technology, most computers have plug-and-play (PnP) allowing the
OS to detect and configure external and internal peripherals, as well as most
adaptors.  PnP has the ability to locate and configure hardware components
without needing to reset jumpers and dual in-line package (DIP) switches.
PnP has the ability to locate and configure hardware components without needing
to reset jumpers [Jumpers allow the computer to close an electrical circuit,
allowing the electricity to flow on a circuit board and perform a function.
Jumpers consist of small pins that can be covered with a small plastic box
(jumper block): 1-2 jumped for Normal mode, 2-3 for config mode, and when
open, the computer is in recovery mode] and dual in-line package (DIP) switches.
 Computer Hardware (H/W) Setup, Configuration

• All hardware devices have configuration settings that can affect performance and
system function. Hardware configuration information may include:
• Available memory
• Power management features
• Devices that are connected such as modems, disc drives and serial ports
During power-on-self-test (POST), a basic input/output system (BIOS) searches
system configurations to determine what devices are present and how they interface
with the CPU. After POST, when the computer and system configurations are found,
the CPU uses the information to process instructions and data. Configuration
information is stored in several ways using DIP switches [In microelectronics, a dual
in-line package (DIP or DIL), is an electronic component package with a rectangular
housing and two parallel rows of electrical connecting pins], jumpers and
complementary metal oxide semiconductors (CMOS).
*To check system configuration on Microsoft Windows, you may do the following:
On the run command (Windows + R), type msconfig
On the command prompt, type systeminfo
 Networking (Computer)
• Networking, also known as computer networking, is the practice of transporting and exchanging data
between nodes over a shared medium in an information system.
• Networking comprises not only the design, construction and use of a network but also the management,
maintenance and operation of the network infrastructure, software and policies.
• Computer networking enables devices and endpoints to be connected to each other on a local area
network (LAN) or to a larger network, such as the internet or a private wide area network (WAN). 
Types of networking
• There are two primary types of computer networking: wired networking and wireless networking.
• Wired networking requires the use of a physical medium for transport between nodes. Copper-based
Ethernet cabling, popular due to its low cost and durability, is commonly used for digital
communications in businesses and homes. Alternatively, optical fibre is used to transport data over
greater distances and at faster speeds, but it has several tradeoffs, including higher costs and more
fragile components.
• Wireless networking uses radio waves to transport data over the air, enabling devices to be connected to
a network without any cabling. Wireless LANs are the most well-known and widely deployed form of
wireless networking. Alternatives include microwave, satellite, cellular and Bluetooth, among others.
 Networking (Computer)
• Components of networking
• Computer networking requires the use of physical network
infrastructure -- including switches, routers and wireless access
points -- and the underlying firmware that operates such equipment.
Other components include the software necessary to
monitor, manage and secure the network.
• Additionally, networks rely on the use of standard protocols to
uniformly perform discrete functions or communicate different types
of data, regardless of the underlying hardware.
• For example, voice over IP (VoIP) can transport IP telephony traffic
to any endpoint that supports the protocol. HTTP provides a
common way for browsers to display webpages. The internet
protocol suite, also known as TCP/IP, is a family of protocols
responsible for transporting data and services over an IP-based
network
 Mobile Hardware Device and types
• Today’s mobile devices are multi-functional devices capable of hosting a
broad range of applications for both business and consumer use.
• Smartphones and tablets enable people to use their mobile devices to access
the Internet for email, instant messaging, text messaging and Web browsing,
as well as work documents, contact lists and more.
• Mobile devices are often seen as an extension to your own PC or laptop, and
in some cases, newer, more powerful mobile devices can even completely
replace PCs.
• And when the devices are used together, work done remotely on a mobile
device can be synchronized with PCs to reflect changes and new
information while away from the computer.
 Mobile Hardware Device and types
• TYPES OF MOBILE COMPUTING DEVICES
• The term mobile device refers to a wide range of consumer electronics. The mobile device typically is used to describe portable devices that
can connect to the Internet. However, some also classify connected digital cameras and standard MP3 players as mobile devices as well. The
category of mobile devices includes the following devices, as well as others:
Personal Digital Assistant (PDA)
• Sometimes called pocket computers, PDAs are handheld devices that combine elements of computing, telephone/fax, Internet and networking in a
single device. A typical PDA can function as a cellular phone, fax sender, Web browser and personal organizer.
• Unlike portable computers, most PDAs began as pen-based, using a stylus rather than a keyboard for input. This means that they also
incorporated handwriting recognition features. Some PDAs can also react to voice input by using voice recognition technologies. The PDAs of
today are available in either a stylus or keyboard version (called a datapad).
• PDAs have largely been rendered obsolete by the rise in popularity of smartphones and tablets, but they still retain a presence in niche markets.
Examples of PDA devices through the years have included the Palm Pilot, Revo, Sony Clie, Hewlett-Packard Jornado, Casio Cassiopedia,
Compaq iPaq and Toshiba Pocket PC.
Smartphones
• Smartphones combine a mobile phone and a handheld computer into a single device. Smartphones allow users to access and store information
(e.g. e-mail) and install programs (applications) while also being able to use a mobile phone in one device.
• For example, a smartphone could be a mobile phone with some PDA functions integrated into the device or vice versa. Examples of smartphones
over the years have included the Apple iPhone, Samsung Galaxy, Microsoft and Nokia Lumia, Sony Ericsson, Palm Treo, Blackberry, Nokia T-
Mobile Sidekick, Torq, Motorola Q, E-Ten, HP iPaq and I-mate.
Tablet PCs
• Tablet PCs are an evolution of the notebook computer with touchscreen LCD screens that can be utilized with your fingertips or with a stylus. The
handwriting with a stylus is digitized and can be converted to standard text through handwriting recognition, or it can remain as handwritten text.
The stylus can also be used to type on a pen-based key layout where the lettered keys are arranged differently than on a QWERTY keyboard.
• Tablet PCs may also offer a removable keyboard as an additional input option. Examples of tablet PCs have included Apple iPad, Microsoft
Surface and Surface Pro, Samsung Galaxy Tab, Samsung Nexus, Amazon Kindle Fire HD and Lenovo Yoga.
PART-II Networking

•LAN
•WAN
•WWW
•Wireless
 Local Area Networks (LAN)
• Local area networks, generally called LANs, are privately-owned networks
within a single building or campus of up to a few kilometres in size.
• They are widely used to connect personal computers and workstations in
company offices and factories to share resources (e.g. printers) and exchange
information.
• LANs are distinguished from other kinds of networks by three characteristics:
• Their size: LANs are restricted in size, which means that the worst-case transmission
time is bounded and known in advance.
• Their transmission technology: LANs may use transmission technology consisting of a
cable to which all the machines are attached. Traditional LANs run at speeds varying
from 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps.
• Their topology: Each computer or device in a network is called a node. The topology is the process
and method of connecting different nodes in a network. There are various types of network topologies
such as: Star, Ring, Bus, Tree, Mesh
Local Area Networks (LAN)
 Wide Area Network (WAN)

• A wide area network, or WAN, spans a large geographical area, often a country
or continent.
• It contains a collection of machines (also called hosts) intended for running
user programs/application programs.
• The hosts are connected by a communication subnet or just a subnet for short.
• The hosts are owned by the customers (e.g., people's personal computers),
whereas the communication subnet is typically owned and operated by a
telephone company or Internet service provider.
• The job of the subnet is to carry messages from host to host, just as the
telephone system carries words from speaker to listener.
• Separation of the pure communication aspects of the network (the subnet)
from the application aspects (the hosts), greatly simplifies the complete
network design.
Wide Area Network (WAN)
World Wide Web (WWW)
• The World Wide Web is a set of interlinked documents, images, and other resources, linked by
hyperlinks and URLs. These hyperlinks and URLs allow the users to search these documents using
the Hyper Transfer Protocol (HTTP).
• Most early Internet programs were command-line programs. The World Wide Web has changed all
that. Instead of requiring you to know archive commands, the World Wide Web gives you a
graphical view of the Internet. The web is easy to use; it is easy to create web pages and to link
them to other web pages.
• Although the World Wide Web uses the Internet, the web is based on another concept entirely.
That concept is hypertext, and is referred to in the names of the standards and protocols that the
World Wide Web uses, i.e. Hypertext Marking Language (HTML) and Hypertext Transfer
Protocol (HTTP).
• The World Wide Web protocol (HTML, HTTP) allow any Internet site to provide (or host) web
pages. Any page can refer to any other web page, even without the knowledge of the other page.
The World Wide Web is the most visible Internet tool today. It presents information textually as
well as graphically and turns the Internet into an information resource and marketing tool unlike
any other.
World Wide Web (WWW)
 Wireless (Wireless Communication/Networks)
• Wireless communication (or just wireless, when the context allows) is the transfer of
information between two or more points without the use of an electrical conductor, optical fibre or
other continuous guided medium for the transfer.
• Wireless networks can be divided into three main categories:
• 1. System interconnection: System interconnection is all about interconnecting the components of a computer using
short-range radio. Some companies got together to design a short-range wireless network called Bluetooth to connect
system components without wires. Bluetooth also allows digital cameras, headsets, scanners, and other devices to
connect to a computer by merely being brought within range. No cables, no driver installation, just put them down,
turn them on, and they work
• 2. Wireless LANs: Wireless LANs are becoming increasingly common in small offices and homes, where installing Ethernet
(technology used in wired communication) is considered too much trouble, as well as in older office buildings, company cafeterias,
conference rooms, and other places. There is a standard for wireless LANs, called IEEE 802.11, which most systems implement and
which is becoming very widespread.
• 3. Wireless WANs: WWAN (Wireless Wide Area Network) is a WAN (Wide Area Network) and the only thing is that the
connectivity is wireless. It provides regional, nationwide and global wireless coverage. Where Wide Area Network can be wired or
wireless the Wireless Wide Area Network connections are completely wireless. In our day-to-day life, we are using the Wireless
Wide Area Networks of different sizes and depending on it delivery of telephonic calls, Web pages and streaming video, data
sharing occurs.
WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network) differs from WWAN (Wireless Wide Area Network) technology wise for example when
WLAN uses Wi-Fi to connect and transfer data, WWAN uses telecommunication cellular network technologies such as 2G, 3G, 4G
LTE, and 5G to transfer data.
 PART-III
Computer & Mobile Operating Systems
Operating System (Computer)
• An operating system (OS) is system software that
manages computer hardware, and software resources, and
provides common services for computer programs.
• There are different types of Operating Systems such as
Single-task and multi-task, Single and Multi-User,
Distributed, Embedded, Real-time, etc.
• The major functions of an Operating System are:
• File Management
• Process Management
• Device Management
• Memory Management
• User Interface
• Security and Protection
• Examples of Computer OS are Microsoft Windows,
Apple macOS, Unix, etc.
 Mobile Operating System
• A mobile operating system is an operating system for mobile
phones, tablets, smartwatches, smart-glasses, smart speakers, or other mobile
devices.
• While computers such as typical laptops are 'mobile', the operating systems
used on them are generally not considered mobile ones, as they were
originally designed for desktop computers that historically did not have or
need specific mobile features.
• It is the software platform that helps in running a mobile application. It is
meant for all kinds of mobile devices like handheld computers, set top
boxes, mobile telephones, smart phones, PDAs, and factory floor equipment.
• The examples of mobile operating systems include embedded Linux,
Microsoft’s Windows CE (Embedded Compact), and Pocket PC, Windows
Embedded NT 4.0, and Palm OS, Android OS, Apple iOS.
 PART-IV
Application Usage of Payment Gateways
 Payment Gateways

• A payment gateway is a technology used by merchants to accept debit or credit

card purchases from customers.
• The term includes not only the physical card-reading devices found in brick-and-
mortar retail stores but also the payment processing portals found in online stores.
• However, brick-and-mortar payment gateways in recent years have begun accepting
phone-based payments using QR codes or Near Field Communication (NFC)
technology
• The payment gateway is a key component of the electronic payment processing
system, as it is the front-end technology responsible for sending customer information
to the merchant acquiring bank, where the transaction is then processed.
• The payment gateway allows you to accept payment via various types of
methods such as credit/debit cards, net banking, UPI, and popular wallets
that include JioMoney, FreeCharge, Airtel Money, etc.
• Examples of Payment Gateways: Bill Desk, PayUBiz, Citrus Pay, CCAvenue,
PayUMoney, Paytm, PayPal, Apple Pay.
 Payment Gateways
• In simple terms, a payment gateway is a network through which your customers transfer funds to you. Payment
gateways are very similar to the point-of-sale terminals used at most brick-and-mortar stores. When using a payment
gateway, customers and businesses need to work together to make a transaction.
• The steps below explain how online payments work with a payment gateway:
Step 1 When accepting online payments, start by setting up your website and connecting it to a payment gateway.
Step 2 Your customer makes a purchase from your website by clicking your payment link and entering their credit card
or debit card details.
Step 3 The order and card details are sent to the payment gateway. The card information is securely transmitted to the
payment gateway, s that only your customer and their bank will be able to access their card details.
Step 4 Next, the payment gateway verifies your customer’s card details and checks if they have sufficient funds to make
the payment. If they do, then the payment gateway proceeds with the transaction. Additionally, the payment gateway
prevents fraudulent activities with the help of anti-fraud tools.
Step 5 The payment gateway then takes over and sends a request to the customer’s issuing bank to initiate the
transaction. The issuing bank then sends these funds to the merchant bank then deposits them into the merchant
account.
Step 6 The status of the transaction will be sent as a notification to the merchant. The payment gateway that you are
using determines how long it takes to receive your payment. Most payments are received in real-time, almost
immediately after the transaction is complete, but some may take as long as 21 days if there are any errors in
processing.
 PART-V
Basic terminology of databases &
Communication through the Internet
Database Terms & Concepts

• A Database is a structure that can store information about multiple types of things
(or entities), the characteristics (or attributes) of those entities, and
the relationships among the entities.  It also contains datatypes for attributes and indexes.
• A Database Management System (DBMS) is a software product (a program or
collection of programs) through which the actual manipulation of the underlying
database is handled. The user can access the data by going directly to the DBMS or can
access the data through another program written with C++, VB, etc. that goes to the
DBMS.  Note:  Both ways must go through the DBMS!  (The user should not access the
data by going through the “back-door”, i.e. going around the DBMS directly to the DB.)
• Database Processing is the manipulation of the data inside the database by the DBMS. 
• A Database Application is a set of one or more programs that serves as an intermediary
between the user and the DBMS.  It produces forms, queries, reports; it sends and
receives data to and from user; it transforms user actions into requests for DBMS.
 Database Terms & Concepts

• An entity is a person, place, thing or event that we want to store information about. (It is like a noun.) 
In a relational database structure, each entity has its own table, i.e. a structure of rows and columns.
• An attribute is a characteristic of an entity that we need to store.  An attribute is represented as
a column in the table for the entity.  It is also called a field.  An attribute has a specific data type.
• A record is a collection of fields with data about one thing or entity, such as a student.  One of the
fields usually identifies the entity.  (Such as a student number.)
• A domain is a description of the legitimate values for an attribute.  It is the set of all possible values for
that attribute.
• An entity class is the general description of an entity.  It is the design of the table for that entity,
showing all of the attributes of that entity.  It describes all possible entities that could ever be stored. 
(The domain for the entity.)
• An entity instance aka entity occurrence is a specific entity.  The information (i.e. all of the
attributes) on one specific entity is stored in a record.  (It is a row in a table in the datasheet view.)
• A tuple is a collection of attributes about a single entity instance.  It is the design of a record.  It
usually doesn’t have a name but it is a specific collection of fields that describes one entity instance. 
The entity instance may be identified by one of the fields in that record, such as the Student ID field. 
• An entity set is a collection of entity occurrences.  The collection of entity occurrences is stored in a
table.  (It is the datasheet view of a table.)
 Database Terms & Concepts

• A relation is a table that meets specific criteria.  If the database is a relational database, then the tables must meet these criteria and hence be
relations.  So a relational database is a collection of relations and relationships. 
• A relational database is a database that is built on a certain model.  In this model, the tables must be relations and they are related to each other
through established relationships.
• Vocabulary Hints:
table (in design view) =  entity class = relation (for a relational database) = (data) file
table (in datasheet view) = entity set
attribute = column = field
row (in a table in datasheet view) = entity occurrence (or entity instance) = record
row (design) = tuple
• A relationship is an association between entities (tables).  It is based on having common data values in designated columns of each table.  A
relationship is defined by linking the common columns in the two tables.  Relationships are actual objects in the database.
• There are three types of relationships:
1. one-to-many (most common)
2. one-to-one
3. many-to-many
Note:  “many” does not necessarily mean a lot.  It just means “any number”.  It could be 0, 1, 2 or 3,457,862.
• A Parent Table is the table on one side of a one-to-many relationship.
• A Child Table is the table on the many sides of a one-to-many relationship. 
• A Primary Key is an attribute (or a collection of attributes) that uniquely identifies each row in the table.  (Each entity instance in a table must be
unique and so this is a way of insuring that.)
• A Composite Key is a key that is made up of more than one attribute.
 Internet Communications
• The world is continuously evolving, and with the emergence of digital
technology, it is changing rapidly. What used to take months to deliver is
now taking a few seconds.
• Today, communication tools have bridged the gap between different
countries. Moreover, internet communication ensures an instant connection
between people on opposite sides of the world.
• Internet-based communication refers to sharing information over the
internet. From instant messaging to placing calls, the internet offers
multiple ways to communicate. These tools help you save a considerable
amount.
• Some of them like email, social networking, and instant messaging are
available free of cost, whereas some like internet telephony provide you
with numerous advantages at cost-effective prices.
 Internet Communications
What are the different ways of communication over the Internet?
• Instant Messaging
• VoIP and Internet Phone System
• Email
• Internet Relay Chat
• Videoconferencing
• Wireless Communications and SMS
 Internet Communications
• Instant Messaging
• When it comes to internet-based communication tools, Instant Messaging (IM) is one of the most
popular means.
• You can have a private conversation with another individual as well as create a chat room where you
can communicate in real-time with more than two people.
• Some of the popular IM services are WhatsApp, AOL Instant Messenger, Yahoo Messenger, MSN
Messenger,
• VoIP and Internet Phone Systems
• Internet telephony uses the internet as a transmission medium for telephone calls. Users
and businesses that need to make calls anywhere in the world can benefit immensely from
an internet phone system. 
• An array of internet telephony applications come bundled with Web browsers, whereas the
others are standalone products. Another internet-based communication tool is Voice over
Internet Protocol (VoIP).
• The most popular examples of VoIP services are Skype, Whatsapp, Google Hangouts, etc.
 Internet Communications
• Email
• Most of the mainframes, microcomputers and computer networks come with an
email system.
• Many email systems are confined to a single network or computer, whereas some
boast gateways to other computer systems. Hence, you can send emails anywhere
in the world.
• Most popular email providers are Gmail, Outlook, and AOL Mail, etc.
• Internet Relay Chat
• More popularly known as IRC, it is a multi-user chat system that facilitates you
to join channels or groups to communicate privately or in groups.
• IRC works on a client-server model. That means you require an IRC client and
an active internet connection to join any IRC discussion.
 Internet Communications
• Videoconferencing
• One more internet-based communication tool on our list is
videoconferencing. It is a platform or medium where two or more
participants connect using their respective computer networks. It
requires the participant to have a microphone, video camera, and
speakers connected to his system.
• Wireless Communications and SMS
• Short Message Service (SMS) helps you send alphanumeric information
wirelessly. But, it restricts you from sending images or graphics.
However, as the wireless service evolved, we got introduced to
Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS). This enables you to send text,
numbers, images, graphics, and audio to MMS-capable handsets.