WRITING WORKSHOP

Legal Skills 2021-2022

 Outlining for Structure - 3

Paragraph Organization and Cohesion - 5

Reporting Language - 23

Professional Register - 29 Formality Requirements

Reduction of Bias in Writing - 43

Plagiarism - 49
Contents

Paraphrasing - 56

2
Outlining

3
 Claims

Argument 1 Evidence

Structure Warrants

Claims

Purpose
Argument 2 Evidence
Statement/Issue

Warrants

Claims

Argument 3 Evidence

Warrants

4
 5

Paragraphing
 Paragraphs: Basic Features

UNIFIED: one main issue

Related ideas supporting one topic

ORGANIZED: ideas develop in a clear order

COHERENT: logical flow so the reader can follow

Visual impact
6
 General  Specific
Organising
Information in
Known  New
Paragraphs

Situation  Solution

7
Paragraph Structure
Topic sentence What will this paragraph achieve

Main Idea, Major Details, Minor Use a logical pattern of organization

Details

Synthesize longer paragraphs or

Closure or transition provide a transition

8
Paragraph development
Transition End of last Beginning of Strong
Smooth flow
between ALL
phrasing paragraph new paragraph connections
ideas

Topic Topic and Clear direction Essential

Sentence Controlling Idea and scope element

Main Define and

Elaborates and
explains the
Further
Idea clarify the topic
topic
narrows scope

Major Written Connections Causes and Results and

Details arguments are made effect Consequences

Minor Statistical Supports the Data, figures,

Details evidence Major Details facts

Transition End of last Beginning of Strong

Smooth flow
between ALL
phrasing paragraph new paragraph connections
idea

9
 Article 53 of the Polish Constitution 1997, provides the constitutional right of
freedom of conscience and religion and Article 25 enshrines the concept of
the relationship between the Polish State and religious institutions. The
provisions, taken together, clarify the importance of faith as central to the
Polish national culture and establish that the principle in Article 53 is a
fundamental human right. By combining the right of freedom of religion to
the political principle, the right is afforded greater weight in Poland. The
freedom to religion has even been considered to be of greater importance
than the right to life (Szymanek, 2006). Moreover, freedom of religion in
Poland is generally accepted as the freedom to manifest a religion, in
private or public, alone or in company and this provides for a broad range of
manifestations including teaching, fasting, prayers and other religious
practices, including those not explicit within the Constitution (Opinio Iuris,
2019). In accordance with the Constitutional Tribunal, human dignity is
linked to the right to respect for freedom of religion. In accordance with

Example Article 30 of the Constitution, the onus lies on the Polish public authorities to
protect the right to religion. Article 53, paragraphs 1 and 2 "imply the
prohibition to take actions, including legal ones, which would unlawfully

Paragraph interfere (hinder) the profession of a particular religion” (Constitutional

Tribunal Judgment, no. K 52/13, 10/12/204)

10
Paragraph
• Expresses the Topic of the paragraph
Structure: as well as the controlling idea

• Announces what will be discussed

Topic in the paragraph.
Sentence • Provides a scope for the current
discussion.
• In effect, the topic sentence limits
what is being written

11
 Topic
Sentence:
Article 53 of the Polish Constitution

Topic + 1997, provides the constitutional

right of freedom of conscience and
Controlling
religion and Article 25 enshrines the
Idea concept of the relationship between
the Polish State and religious
institutions.

12
 Article 53 of the Polish Constitution 1997, provides the constitutional
right of freedom of conscience and religion and Article 25 enshrines
the concept of the relationship between the Polish State and religious
institutions. The provisions, taken together, clarify the importance of faith
as central to the Polish national culture and establish that the principle in
Article 53 is a fundamental human right. By combining the right of freedom
of religion to the political principle, the right is afforded greater weight in
Poland. The freedom to religion has even been considered to be of greater

Topic importance than the right to life (Szymanek, 2006). Moreover, freedom of
religion in Poland is generally accepted as the freedom to manifest a

Sentences religion, in private or public, alone or in company and this provides for a
broad range of manifestations including teaching, fasting, prayers and
other religious practices, including those not explicit within the Constitution
(Opinio Iuris, 2019). In accordance with the Constitutional Tribunal, human
dignity is linked to the right to respect for freedom of religion. In accordance
with Article 30 of the Constitution, the onus lies on the Polish public
authorities to protect the right to religion. Article 53, paragraphs 1 and 2
"imply the prohibition to take actions, including legal ones, which would
unlawfully interfere (hinder) the profession of a particular religion”
(Constitutional Tribunal Judgment, no. K 52/13, 10/12/2014)

13
 • Never assume that the reader
follows every step of your
Paragraph argumentation.

Structure:
• Often, you’ll need to further
specify or elaborate on the
Main Idea statement you’ve made

• Explain, Define, Expand Upon,

for further reduce the topic
sentence and its scope.

14
 Article 53 of the Polish Constitution 1997,
provides the constitutional right of freedom of
conscience and religion and Article 25
enshrines the concept of the relationship
between the Polish State and religious
Main Idea institutions. The provisions, taken together,
clarify the importance of faith as central to
the Polish national culture and establish
that the principle in Article 53 is a
fundamental human right.

15
 Article 53 of the Polish Constitution 1997, provides the constitutional right
of freedom of conscience and religion and Article 25 enshrines the concept
of the relationship between the Polish State and religious institutions. The
provisions, taken together, clarify the importance of faith as central to
the Polish national culture and establish that the principle in Article
53 is a fundamental human right. By combining the right of freedom of
religion to the political principle, the right is afforded greater weight in
Poland. The freedom to religion has even been considered to be of greater
importance than the right to life (Szymanek, 2006). Moreover, freedom of
religion in Poland is generally accepted as the freedom to manifest a

Main Idea religion, in private or public, alone or in company and this provides for a
broad range of manifestations including teaching, fasting, prayers and
other religious practices, including those not explicit within the Constitution
(Opinio Iuris, 2019). In accordance with the Constitutional Tribunal, human
dignity is linked to the right to respect for freedom of religion. In accordance
with Article 30 of the Constitution, the onus lies on the Polish public
authorities to protect the right to religion. Article 53, paragraphs 1 and 2
"imply the prohibition to take actions, including legal ones, which would
unlawfully interfere (hinder) the profession of a particular religion”
(Constitutional Tribunal Judgment, no. K 52/13, 10/12/2014)

16
 Article 53 of the Polish Constitution 1997, provides the constitutional
right of freedom of conscience and religion and Article 25 enshrines
the concept of the relationship between the Polish State and religious
institutions. The provisions, taken together, clarify the importance of faith
as central to the Polish national culture and establish that the principle in
Article 53 is a fundamental human right. By combining the right of freedom
of religion to the political principle, the right is afforded greater weight in
Poland. The freedom to religion has even been considered to be of greater

Major and importance than the right to life (Szymanek, 2006). Moreover, freedom of
religion in Poland is generally accepted as the freedom to manifest a

Minor Details religion, in private or public, alone or in company and this provides for a
broad range of manifestations including teaching, fasting, prayers and
other religious practices, including those not explicit within the Constitution
(Opinio Iuris, 2019). In accordance with the Constitutional Tribunal, human
dignity is linked to the right to respect for freedom of religion. In accordance
with Article 30 of the Constitution, the onus lies on the Polish public
authorities to protect the right to religion. Article 53, paragraphs 1 and 2
"imply the prohibition to take actions, including legal ones, which would
unlawfully interfere (hinder) the profession of a particular religion”
(Constitutional Tribunal Judgment, no. K 52/13, 10/12/2014)

17
Paragraph Structure

Subject of the Repeated

paragraph TOPIC theme
What the author 1st, 2nd, last;
wants you to know MAIN IDEA Contrast,
about the subject Concession

MAJOR Addition,
Elaboration Sequencing,
DETAILS
Facts & Statements Cause & Effect
Minor
Evidence, Reasons & Because, As a result of
Details
Examples Such as, for instance

18
 Summarize discussion

Paragraph
Structure:
Use appropriate transitions

Transition/
Closure
Point to topic sentence of
next paragraph

19
 LOGICAL RELATIONSHIP TRANSITIONAL EXPRESSION
Similarity also, in the same way, just as … so too, likewise, similarly

Exception/Contrast but, however, in spite of, on the one hand … on the other
hand, nevertheless, nonetheless, notwithstanding, in
contrast, on the contrary, still, yet

Sequence/Order first, second, third, … next, then, finally

Time after, afterward, at last, before, currently, during, earlier,

immediately, later, meanwhile, now, recently, simultaneously,
subsequently, then

Example for example, for instance, namely, specifically, to illustrate

Emphasis even, indeed, in fact, of course, truly

Place/Position above, adjacent, below, beyond, here, in front, in back,

nearby, there

Cause and Effect accordingly, consequently, hence, so, therefore, thus

Additional Support or Evidence additionally, again, also, and, as well, besides, equally
important, further, furthermore, in addition, moreover, then

Conclusion/Summary finally, in a word, in brief, briefly, in conclusion, in the end, in

the final analysis, on the whole, thus, to conclude, to
summarize, in sum, to sum up, in summary

20
 Linguistic Features:
Transitions

Use transitional words

and phrases
strategically

Use transitional words

and phrases
consciously

21
 The debate on legal insanity is and will be relevant for the future as the
insanity defense is used in many court cases. In those cases, it is
important to correctly determine whether someone can be deemed legally
insane or not. The verdict influences the further proceedings of the
accused. Indeed, if one suffers from a mental disorder, they would be
better helped at a mental hospital where the mental disorder could be

Cohesive cared for, treated and observed by professionals or a prison which is able
to provide these kinds of services. However, the insanity defense can be
paragraphs misused as the prison sentence might be less severe or the person is
transferred to a mental institution. To avoid this, it is important for
forensic psychologists and neuroscientists to elaborate the defense with
new scientific evidence to identify insanity with a higher validity and
accuracy that would be applicable in court. By doing so they might come
to establish when a schizophrenic patient is eligible for diminished
responsibility concerning their crime .

22
 Reporting
Language

23
 Reporting Verbs

• Williams (2004) examines the lack of public

Aims awareness among low income groups

concerning health protection and disease
prevention

• Miller (2016) shows that the instances of

Results compliance are statistically higher among
Company group A.

• Clark (2011) argues that “European institutions

Opinion have gained an unprecedented level of de jure
and de facto powers

24
 Categories of Reporting Verbs

   
AIMS RESULTS OPINIONS
Investigate suggest (that)* believe (that)

Analyse find (that) State (that)

Look at indicate (that) Note (that)*

focus on identify (x) as point out (that)*

Consider reveal (that) observe (that)*

Identify establish (that) consider (that)

report (on) confirm (that) hold (that)

be concerned with conclude (that)* claim (that)

  demonstrate (that) emphasise/stress

25
Reporting Verbs

However,
Clarkson Radisson has
claims… demonstrated
that in fact….
26
Reporting Verbs

Agreement Disagreement

• Jones accepts • Jones insists

• Peters illustrates • Peters maintains
• Williams discovered • Williams assumes

27
 Argue

Reporting Present Present

Verbs: Simple
Past Simple
Perfect

Considering
tense Cohen (2004) Barclay (1974) Cameron It has been
Argues… Argued (2017) Argued argued...

Signifies Passage of disagreement/ Introduce a

relevance time opposition topic

28
Professional
Writing

29
 Focused and Well Structured

Clear and Precise

Formal and Unbiased

Correct and Consistent

Professional Well Sourced

Register
30
 Formal language makes use of complex
sentence structures
• In 2001, the bridge was built. This was good politically. Two
countries united. = Informal
• The bridge was completed in 2001, which resulted in a
positive political move that united two countries. = Formal

Formal language does not use contractions

• When considering staffing in hospitals in the future, it's

difficult not be concerned. = Informal
• When considering staffing in hospitals in the future, it is
difficult not be concerned. = Formal

Formal language is objective

Formal • I think/believe that the issue of global warming will be the

primary concern at the meeting. = Informal
Language • There is little doubt/It is clear that  the issue of global
warming will be the primary concern at the meeting. =Formal
Requirements
31
Emotional
Subjectivity
Countless policymakers lament that
the implementation of standards-
based accountability measures has
led to a horrifying crisis of epic
proportions that has caused many
children to suffer.

32
Objective Voice
Policymakers have voiced their opposition to the
implementation of standards-based
accountability measures as it has led to
unnecessary pressures on children.

33
 Formal language focuses more on vocabulary
choice
• The research assistant checked out the incident and got
back to him the next day. = Informal
• The research assistant investigated the incident and
reported to him the following day. = Formal
Formal language makes use of the discipline
specific vocabulary
• Germs grow well in dirty and warm temperatures. = Informal
• Bacteria thrive in unhygienic and warm conditions.= Formal

Formal language does not use colloquialisms

(language which is common to spoken English)
• Sweden's Prime Minister, Fredrik Reinfeldt, totally lost it
when he read the latest report from the press. = Informal
• The Prime Minister of Sweden, Fredrik Reinfeldt, expressed
Formal Language his concern when he viewed the most recent report from the
Requirements press. = Formal

34
Phrasal
Verbs

35
 “Cut out” has many meanings depending on the
context of the sentence:

− Delete or remove
− (e.g., The irrelevant paragraph was cut out)
− Shape by cutting
− (e.g., The DNA model was cut out using
scissors)
− Suited or well-equipped
Phrasal Verbs: − (e.g., She was not cut out for the task)
consider ‘cut − Cease operating
out’ − (e.g., The engine cut out)
− Exclude
− (e.g., Group 2 had sugar cut out of their diet)
36
 This
We carried out an
experiment consists
experiment…
of three…

These
As discussed
recommendations
by Jones et al., …
are based on …

Phrasal
Verbs:
Each test
was subjected to … Acceptable
Exceptions
37
Passive Voice
The OVERUSE of the Passive…

38
 What is Passive Voice

•The passive voice occurs when the

subject of the sentence is hidden or
pushed to the end of the sentence.

•And the object of the sentence is placed

before the main verb

•Passive sentences are formed using

the verb to be combined with a past
participle.
39
Active v
Passive Voice
•Traditionally, academic
writing contained a lot of
passive structures. It was
complicated to read and
understand.

•Education was for the elite!

• 75% Passive
• 24% Active
• 1% Cr@p

40
What is the Passive Voice?
There was a considerable
range of expertise • The hackers demonstrated a
demonstrated by the
hackers.
considerable range of expertise.

It was determined by the • The committee determined the

committee that the report
was inconclusive. report was inconclusive.

The proposed initiative will • Abortion rights groups will bitterly

be bitterly opposed by
abortion rights groups oppose the proposed initiative
41
Active v Passive

Why avoid Passive voice? Why use Passive voice?

Unclear/
Actor is
Confusing
Wordy, not unknown Highlight
who/what
concise or the action
is the
irrelevant
subject?

To avoid
Unneeded Insinuates When
using a
distance the evasion greater
personal
between of distance is
pronoun
author and responsibilit appropriate
(e.g. ‘I’ or
reader y objective
‘we’)

42
Inclusivity
and the
Reduction
of Bias in
Writing

43
 Reducing Bias: Focus of relevant
characteristics

Highlighting differences Failure to recognise differences

• Include only the descriptions or characteristics • Differences are a fact of life, and discussing
that are relevant them respectfully and honestly is okay
• Avoid including unnecessary information • Failing to recognise differences may be a
about subjects source of bias

VS.
− Eg. Is there a need to discuss religion − Eg. Is there a need to consider race, or
when talking about socio-economic status? gender when talking about socio-economic
• Accuracy in academic writing also means not status?
over-reporting  • Accuracy in Academic writing also includes
precision

44
 Age: include specific age ranges (e.g. 15-18 year
olds, 65-80 year olds) rather than vague
categories such as children, or adults, or
Disability: seniors
name specific conditions rather than
categories or saying ‘people with disabilities’
eg. Alzheimer’s vs dementia

Reducing Gender
identity:
descriptors with modifiers (e.g. cisgender
woman) are more specific than those without

Bias: Be Racial and

ethnic
(e.g. woman). 
use terms like ‘African American’ ‘Afro-

Specific! groups/origi Caribbean’ rather than ‘Black’.

ns:
Sexual
orientation:
use specific orientations where known rather
than the over simplified dichotomy of
heterosexual vs. homosexual or ‘gay’. 
Socio-
economic
provide specific income ranges where
status: appropriate, rather than generalizing groups
as ‘low-income’, ‘working class’, or ‘middle
class’. 
45
 Reducing Bias: The Third person
pronoun

He/She They/Them

46
 Reducing Bias: Sensitivity to Labels
Acknowledge and respect the humanity of the subjects of your
research
Choose terms your subjects would choose for themselves

Avoid using nouns for things that should be addressed as adjectives

Try to incorporate descriptive phrasing , especially where such phrasing follows a

‘person first’ structure
Avoid False Hierarchies

Attention to language that may present some individuals as ‘normal’, ‘natural’, ‘healthy’
or ‘developed’ and others as thus inherently ‘abnormal’ ‘deviant’ or ‘diseased’. 
Avoid descriptors such as ‘Third world’, ‘less developed’ or ‘unskilled labour’
47
 Reducing Bias:

01 02 03
You’re not expected Times change, Ask questions,
to know everything, people change, and speak openly and
and standard is not most importantly we listen carefully to
‘perfection’. all have different your subjects
view-points

48
Plagiarism
..and how to Avoid it

49
Plagiarism
• What is Plagiarism?
• Using words and/or ideas derived
from others, without attribution to
source

• What are the types of Plagiarism?

• Accidental or Unintentional
Plagiarism
• Mosaic Plagiarism
• Direct or Intentional Plagiarism
(Words and/or Ideas)
• Self Plagiarism
50
 Unintentional plagiarism
Careless paraphrasing or sloppy/incorrect citing of source material

Mosaic plagiarism stemming from interwoven texts and poorly

distinguished sources

Misrepresenting a source's intentions

Difficulty distinguishing common knowledge

51
 How to Identify
Common
Knowledge
Who is my reader
and what can I
assume they know?

Could my reader
dispute this
statement?

Can my reader easily

verify this statement
across multiple
sources?
52
 I N T E N T I ONA L
P L AG I A R I S M

• Intentional plagiarism is the purposeful

presenting another’s ideas or words as
your own.

• Includes: words, structures, styles, ideas,

metaphors, etc.

• Be careful where you share your work,

including checking your own work with
online plagiarism tools

53
Self-
Plagiarism
• Reusing work that you have already
published or submitted for a class.
• It can involve re-submitting an
entire paper,
paraphrasing passages from your
previous work, or recycling old
data
• Self-plagiarism misleads your readers
by presenting old work as completely
new and original.
• If you want to include any text,
ideas, or data that already
appeared in a previous paper, you
should always inform the reader of
this by citing your own work.

54
How to Avoid
Plagiarism

• Keep track of your work

• Paraphrase effectively
• Cite correctly, cite often.

55
56
 Expressing the meaning of
the main points of a text
while using different words,
structure, and nuances.

The true meaning should not

change – as this would
become accidental
What is plagiarism… even if the
Paraphrasing? source is cited.
57
 1. Copying a paragraph as it is from the source without any
acknowledgement.
2. Copying a paragraph making only small changes, such as
replacing a few verbs or adjectives with synonyms.
3. Cutting and pasting a paragraph by using the sentences of
the original but leaving one or two out, or by putting one or two
Identify of the sentences in a different order.

Paraphrasing 4. Composing a paragraph by taking short standard phrases

from a number of sources and putting them together with some
words of your own.
5. Paraphrasing a paragraph by rewriting with substantial
changes in language and organization, amount of details, and
examples.

58
 1. Copying a paragraph as it is from the source without any
acknowledgement.
2. Copying a paragraph making only small changes, such as
replacing a few verbs or adjectives with synonyms.
3. Cutting and pasting a paragraph by using the sentences of
the original but leaving one or two out, or by putting one or two
Identify of the sentences in a different order.

Paraphrasing 4. Composing a paragraph by taking short standard phrases

from a number of sources and putting them together with some
words of your own.
5. Paraphrasing a paragraph by rewriting with substantial
changes in language and organization, amount of details, and
examples.

59
 Paraphrasing Strategies

• Identify important points

• Focus on relationships
• Find a new angle
• Take the original text away
• Change the order of the Paragraph
• Change the sentence structure
• Use as many synonyms as possible,
• But do not rely on synonyms too heavily
• Do not change specialized vocabulary
• Do not make the paraphrase longer than the original 60