English for Academic

and Professional
Purposes

SALLY C. GAWISAO
SST II
Lesson 2

Language used in
Academic Writing
Learning Objectives:
1. Determine language style in
academic writing;
2. differentiate language
style used in academic texts
from various disciplines; and
3. construct paragraphs using
academic language.
 ☺ A well-structured text enables the
reader to follow the argument and
navigate the text.
 
☺ A clear structure and a logical flow
are imperative to a cohesive text.
☺ Most academic texts follow established
structures such as: the three- part essay
structure and the IMRaD structure.
 
☺ Structure should be considered on all
levels of text so; you will also find
information on structuring paragraphs.
Language
- is a powerful means for self expression, encouragement,
communication and other purposes.
- Some people used language to shame, bully, defame
and even destroy others.
- The general use of language has rules and standards as
speaker or writer has to follow.
-Different language and style depends on its purpose.

In essays writer, used specialized language for academic

writing and it is called academic language.
 What is an Academic Language?
Academic language
- represents the language demands of school
(academics)
- It includes language used in textbooks, in classrooms,
on tests, and in each discipline.
- It is different in vocabulary and structure from the
everyday spoken English of social interactions. Each
type of communication (both academic and
social) has its purpose, and neither is superior to the
other.
The purpose of academic language is present
your ideas in concise, clear and scholarly
manner.

Features of academic language

1. Formal
2. objective
FORMAL
- Academic language does not use
conversational or casual language.
- You need to maintain serious, authoritative
and the word used should be carefully and
precisely selected to fit the intended
audience.
 Language to be avoided or taboo

Taboo languages do not improve the essay

arguments and organizations. Some taboo words
detract from the formal nature of a good essay.

Taboo # 1: Avoid contractions

- Contractions are form by combining two words to
create a single word.
-Instead of contractions, used the full version of the
word. This will keep the integrity and academic tone
of the essay.
Taboo #2: Colloquial language
-Colloquial languages are language used in casual or everyday
conversation.
- Figures of speech, cliches, idioms, slang, jargon and other
informal expressions are the example.

Instead of colloquial language, used formal alternative to

maintain an academic tone.

really hard to do - difficult to practice

They had a cool time - They had an enjoyable
experience
kinda lame - somewhat average
sort of lame - medio care to some degree
Taboo # 3: Informal transition
-A transition or linking word is a word or phrase that shows
the relationship between paragraphs or sections of a text
or speech. Transitions provide greater cohesion by making
it more explicit or signaling how ideas relate to one
another.
- replace transition with sophisticated alternatives or
remove them from the sentence

Also, the students were given learning packs by the

barangay officials.

Furthermore or moreover, the students were given learning

packs by the barangay officials.
OBJECTIVE
- In general academic texts are always objective
means, they are impersonal and not colored by the
author’s emotions, feelings and preferences.
- The aim of academic text is to focus on the text
and arguments presented in bias and fair manner.

Suggestion #1: Be specific

-do not use vague or unclear words

Suggestion #2: Avoid unnecessary intensifiers

- Intensifiers are adverbs or adverbial phrases that

strengthen the meaning of other expressions and
show emphasis.
- Intensifiers make the writing sound bias and
personal.

Very, really, so, awfully, extremely, rather, and

superb are intensifiers to avoid
Suggestion #3: Avoid value judgements
- Academic writing highly discouraged to express value
judgement in writing because it makes the arguments
sound personal.
-Avoid adjective that signal positive value or agreement
like amazing, awesome, great, beautiful, marvelous,
inspiring and superb.
- Avoid adjective that signal negative value judgement or
disagreement like disgusting, bad, awful, horrible, dreadful
and others
value judgement
- an assessment of something as good or bad in terms of one's standards or priorities.
Suggestion # 4: Write in third person
-In most academic writing, third person is used to
keep the tone factual without bias.
- 1st person I, we, me, us and my indicate the author
is speaking from his own opinion. It is appropriate
for reflective essays, narrative essays, cover letters
or personal statements for the author’s perspective
is necessary.
-However, for most argumentative essay, the third
person is used. It sound more objective and
detached from the author’s personal bias.
Academic writing is generally quite formal,
objective (impersonal) and technical as
illustrated in the diagram below.
Objective
Formal avoid personal or Technical
Avoid casual or direct reference to used
conversational such people or feelings vocabulary
as contractions and specific to the
informal vocabulary discipline

Academic
Language
Furthermore, you can make your writing more formal,
objective and technical by following examples below.

Formal Objective Technical

Choose formal instead Move information You need to develop a
of informal vocabulary. around in the sentence large vocabulary for the
For example, to emphasize things and concepts specific to the
‘somewhat’ is more ideas, instead of people discipline or
formal than ‘a bit’, and feelings. For specialization you’re
‘insufficient’ is more example, instead of writing for. To do this,
formal than ‘not writing ‘I believe the take note of terminology
enough’. model is valid, based on used by your lecturer
these findings’, write and tutor, as well as in
‘These findings indicate your readings.
that the model is valid’.
Avoid contractions. For
example, use ‘did not’
rather than ‘didn’t’.
Avoid emotional language.
For example, instead of
strong words such as
‘wonderful’ or ‘terrible’, use
more moderate words such
as ‘helpful’ or ‘problematic’.
Avoid evaluative words
that are based on non-
technical judgments and
feelings. For example,
use ‘valid’ or ‘did not
demonstrate’ instead of
‘amazing’ or
‘disappointment’
Avoid intense or emotional
evaluative language. For
example, instead of writing
‘Parents who smoke are
obviously abusing their
children’,
write ‘Secondhand smoke
has some harmful effects on
children’s health’.
Be careful about the
meaning of technical
terms. Often the same
word has a different
meaning in another
discipline. For example,
‘discourse’ is a technical
term used in multiple
disciplines with different
meanings.
Use the key categories and
relationships in your
discipline, that is, the way
information and ideas are
organized into groups.
For example, in the
discipline of Law, law is
separated into two types:
common law and statute
law.
Instead of using absolute
positives and negatives, such
as ‘proof’ or ‘wrong’, use
more cautious evaluations,
such as ‘strong evidence’ or
‘less convincing’.
Show caution about your Knowing these distinctions
views, or to allow room for will help you structure your
others to disagree. writing and make it more
For example, instead of technical and analytical.
writing ‘I think secondhand
smoke causes cancer’, write
‘There is evidence to support
the possibility that
secondhand smoke increases
the risk of cancer’.
Find authoritative sources,
such as authors, researchers
and theorists in books or
articles, who support your
point of view, and refer to
them in your writing. For
example, instead of writing
‘Language is, in my view,
clearly something social’,
write ‘As Halliday (1973)
argues, language is
intrinsically social’.
Types of academic writing
1. Descriptive
2. Analytical
3. Persuasive
4. Critical

Each of these types of writing has specific

language features and purposes.
Descriptive
 The simplest type of academic writing. Its
purpose is to provide facts or information.
 An example would be a summary of an article
or a report of the results of an experiment.
 The kinds of instructions for a purely descriptive
assignment include: 'identify', 'report', 'record',
'summarize' and 'define'.
Analytical
 Most academic writing is also analytical.
 Analytical writing includes descriptive writing, but also
requires you to re-organize the facts and information you
describe into categories, groups, parts, types or
relationships.
 If you’re comparing two theories, you might break your
comparison into several parts, for example: how each
theory deals with social context, how each theory deals with
language learning, and how each theory can be used in
practice.
 The kinds of instructions for an analytical assignment
include: 'analyze', 'compare', 'contrast', 'relate', and
'examine'.
Persuasive
 Persuasive writing has all the features of analytical
writing (that is, information plus re-organizing the
information), with the addition of your own point of view.
Most essays are persuasive, and there is a persuasive
element in at least the discussion and conclusion of a
research article.
 Points of view in academic writing can include an
argument, recommendation, interpretation of findings or
evaluation of the work of others. In persuasive writing,
each claim you make needs to be supported by some
evidence, for example a reference to research findings
or published sources.
 The kinds of instructions for a persuasive assignment
include: 'argue', 'evaluate', 'discuss', and 'take a position'.
Critical
 Critical writing is common for research, postgraduate and
advanced undergraduate writing. It has all the features of
persuasive writing, with the added feature of at least one other
point of view. While persuasive writing requires you to have your
own point of view on an issue or topic, critical writing requires you
to consider at least two points of view, including your own.
 For example, you may explain a researcher's interpretation or
argument and then evaluate the merits of the argument, or give
your own alternative interpretation.
 Examples of critical writing assignments include a critique of a
journal article, or a literature review that identifies the strengths
and weaknesses of existing research. The kinds of instructions
for critical writing include: 'critique', 'debate', 'disagree' and
'evaluate'.
 Different disciplines also have different styles and
structures of writing.
For example, some disciplines, such as in the humanities,
expect longer paragraphs, which include topic sentences to
show how your argument is structured.
Other disciplines, for example in the sciences, expect
short paragraphs, with no topic sentences, which are denser
in factual information.
 Let’s
Practice
Directions: What do you think is the most correct answer in
the following instances. Write your answer in your notebook.

1. Instead of the informal 'I have read', use

( I think, The essay has )

2. The phrase 'turn out to be' is informal.
Instead, use: ( become, end up )
3. Instead of 'paid for', use
( given, funded )
4. Job' is a little too informal. Instead write

( role, gig, )
5. Instead of ‘funny’ use ( laughable, ironic )
6. Instead of 'picked out', use( selected, taken )
7. Rather than “stand for” write ( be, represent )
8. The term 'music fans' is informal. Instead, use

( audience, goers )
9. As a substitute for 'killing', use ( assassination,
political murder)
10. Instead of 'given off', use (created, done )
Let’s Do It
Directions: Choose the word that best answers the given
questions. Write the letter of your answers in your notebook.

1. As long as you know your tutor, you don't need to use

a formal style of writing. It's good to be friendly.
A. Some tutors like you to be formal but some don't
mind as long as you do the work.
B. You only need to be formal in exams, not regular
coursework.
C. It's good to be friendly but always use formal English
when you write assignments.
D. Formal English is too old-fashioned these days
2. Contractions are:
A. what happens when you have a baby
B. when someone says the opposite to you
C. something is too narrow
D. a shortened form of a word
3. Which example is correct?
A. However, the main reasons are time, money and cost.
B. However the main reasons, are time, money, and,
cost.
C. However, the main reasons are time money and cost.
D. However, the main reasons, are time money, and cost.
4. Which is correct?
A. They were effected badly by the incident
B. The incident effected them badly.
C. They were affected badly by the incident.
D. The affects of the incident were bad.

5. Choose the right one:

A. It's bowl's empty.
B. Its bowl's empty.
C. Its' bowls' empty.
D. It's bowls empty.
6. 'Information on the internet is 'free'. Anyone
can use it without having to reference it.’
A. True
B. False
C. It depends on how important the assignment is.
D. You only need to reference authors' work on
the internet
7. What is an academic language...
A. is a set of vocabulary terms used in schools
B. comes as second nature to native speakers,
but is difficult for ELLs to acquire
C. is the linguistic register that students are
expected to use in school subjects
D. All of the above
8. When do you use formal language?
A. In an academic essay.
B. When you talk to a friend.
C. When you write a text message.
D. In sending emails.

9. What does it mean to write academically?

A. To write in order to pass final exams
B. To write paper for scholars
C. To write using proper English language
D. To avoid copy pasting from the Internet
10. The term, "VERY OFTEN" may be
improved using a more appropriate academic
word which is:
A. Frequently
B. Rarely
C. Seriously
D. Stubbornly
Assignment
Directions: Transform the simple sentence into compound
or complex sentences. Write your answer in your notebook.
The first one is done for you.

The exam is difficult. It is also exasperating.

Answer: The exam is difficult and exasperating.

1. Captain Lewis allowed his men to make

important decisions in a democratic manner.
This democratic attitude fostered spirit of
togetherness and commitment on the part
Louis’ fellow explorers.
 2. He studied the biological and natural
sciences. He learned how to categorize and
draw animals accurately.

3. Mark Twain is the author of Huckleberry

Finn. Huckleberry Finn is a classic American
novel

4. My friend likes coffee. She likes

tea. She doesn’t like milk.
5. John F. Kennedy was inaugurated into office
in January of 1961. He was assassinated in
November of 1963.

6. Some students become nervous around

computers. Other students seem to enjoy new
challenges.

7. Jae Hee comes from Korea. Kyung Eun comes

from Korea. Jae Hyun comes from Korea.
8. I am going to buy the skateboard. It is
blue. It has red wheels. It has a picture of a
dragon on top.

9. My father is 45 years old. He plays

football. He goes jogging. He does not play
tennis anymore. His wrist was broken. This
happened two years ago.

10. Covid 19 virus is viral. It is also

infectious.