What Is Research?

• A scientific process where new facts, ideas and theories are established
and/or proved in different areas of knowledge.
• Careful or diligent search
• Studious inquiry or examination; especially : investigation or
experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation of facts,
revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts, or
practical application of such new or revised theories or laws
• The collecting of information about a particular subject
• A combination of investigation of past work and effort in the present
that will help others in the future”
• Finding or developing something new that changes the world….
 Definitions of Research
• The main goal of research is the gathering and interpreting of information to answer
questions (Hyllegard, Mood, and Morrow, 1996).

• Research is a systematic attempt to provide answers to questions (Tuckman, 1999).

• Research may be defined as the systematic and objective analysis and recording of controlled
observations that may lead to the development of generalizations, principles, or theories,
resulting in prediction and possible control of events (Best and Kahn, 1998).

• Research is a systematic way of asking questions, a systematic method of inquiry (Drew,

Hardman, and Hart, 1996).

• Research is a systematic activity directed towards discovery and the development of an

organised body of knowledge.(John Best)

• Research is a systematic, , rigorous and precise process employed to gain solutions to

problems or to discover and interpret new facts and relationships.(Waltz and Bausell)

• Research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested

solutions, collecting, organizing and evaluating data, making deductions and reaching
conclusions to determine they fit the formulating hypothesis.(Clifford Woody)
Difference between ‘Methods’ and ‘Methodology’

Method Methodology
Techniques for gathering The underlying theory and
evidence analysis of how research does
should proceed, is often
influenced by discipline.
The various ways of It is the theory that decides
proceeding in gathering what can be observed.
information
 CHARACTERISTCS OF RESEARCH
(What is good research?)
(Essential criteria of a good research)

Research purpose should be clearly defined.

 It is directed towards solution of a problem.
 Based on observable experience- Empirical evidence.
 Develops generalizations/principles/theories
 Retains objectivity and verifiability
 Determines relation between two or more variables.
 Findings should be presented unambiguously.
High ethical standards applied.
Research design thoroughly planned.
Conclusions should be justified.
Some Common Terms Used In Research
To be able to read and conduct research, you should understand some of the
more common terms associated with research.
Instrument The device or method that attempts to quantify or measure a variable. For
example, an instrument can be a questionnaire.
Conclusion The results that were reached by the researcher.
Variable These are things that can be measured or controlled by the researcher.
  Independent This is the variable(s) that are altered.
Variable
Dependent This is the variable(s) that are measured or explained.
Variable
Mean The arithmetic average of a set of values.
Continuous Variable Contains any number of values and can be further subdivided. For example, weight
is a continuous variable because you can distinguish between a person that weighs
74.1Kg and a person who weighs 74.12Kg.
Discrete Variable Contains a limited set of values that cannot be subdivided further. For example, the
number of people in a family is a discrete variable because you cannot subdivide a
person.
Population Group, class of subjects, variables, concepts or phenomena under study.
Census Every occurrence in a population. For example, all people living in New Zealand.
Sample Often, it is too expensive to measure every occurrence in a population, so
researchers select a small group that represents the population. This is called a
sample. Most samples are randomly selected.
Sample Error The degree to which the measurements taken from the sample group differ from
Hypothesis a specific statement of prediction

Variable… any observation that can take on different values

Attribute a specific value on a variable

According to Holme and Solvang (1997), a method is a tool
that can help solve problems and reach new knowledge.

Research can be classified in many different ways on the basis

of the methodology of research. The knowledge it creates, the
user group, the research problem it investigates etc,.
 Types of Research

From the From the From the From the

viewpoint of viewpoint of viewpoint of viewpoint of
Application Objective Extent of Theory Methodology

Theoretical
Pure Exploratory Qualitative

Applied Descriptive Empirical Quantitative

Casual
Types of research contd…

• Types of research on the basis of Application

Pure/Basic/Fundamental research
Applied/Practical/Action Based/Need Based
research
Pure/Basic/Fundamental research
 It is the most basic form of research.
 Primarily intended to find out certain basic principles
 The objective of this research is to provide models and theories regarding
some phenomenon
 This type of research seeks to obtain knowledge about a particular subject
rather than its practical usage, testing of hypotheses and theories
 It is carried out to discover and gain better insight about a specific
phenomenon, without considering a problem and its direct practical
application.
Examples of Pure/Basic/Fundamental research
 John Robinson’s Imperfect competition theory in Economics
 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory in Motivation
 Eltons Mayo’s Hawthrone Experiment relating productivity with work
environment.
 The science of psychology has certain assumptions regarding human
behaviour which may be termed as fundamental in nature.
 Designing a research model for reading behavior among teenagers has no
practical application. It simply contributes to the area of knowledge
 Sociologist tries to find out the reason for crime or the factors that lead a
person to become criminal.
Forms of Basic research
 Discovery
 Invention
 Reflection
Applied Research
 It’s the practical application of the concepts provided by basic research
 Applies the existing knowledge ,theories, and methods to solve particular issue.
 It tries to solve the existing problems faced by businesses, society and
government.
 Applied research can put theory to the test.
 It is problem oriented or action oriented.
 Applied research tries to provide the solutions to eradicate the various types of
practical problems related to real life and social life requiring an action or policy
decisions.
 Example:- improve agriculture crop production, treat or cure a specific disease,
improve the energy efficiency homes, offices, how can communication among
workers in large companies be improved?
Examples of Applied Research
Sociologist tries to find out how the behavior of the criminal can be controlled
When we apply psychology principles regarding human behavior in different
fields of management , say personnel management, marketing management etc.,
research becomes applied in nature.
Marketing research carried out on developing for developing a new market or
for studying a post purchase experience of customers.
Pure Research Applied Research
Pure research is conducted without any Applied research is conducted with a specific
specific goal. goal in mind.
Aim
The main aim is to advance knowledge. The main aim is to solve a specific and
practical problem.
Nature
Pure research is exploratory in nature. Applied research is descriptive in nature.

Theories and Principals

Pure research identifies new ideas, Applied research is based on the theories,
theories, principles and new ways of principles discovered through pure research.
thinking.
Findings 
Findings of pure research usually have a Findings of applied research always have a
future use, not a current use. current use.
Example
The science of psychology has certain When we apply psychology principles
assumptions regarding human behaviour regarding human behavior in different fields
which may be termed as fundamental in of management , say personnel
nature. management, marketing management etc.,
research becomes applied in nature.
Research Types Contd……

• Based on Objective
–Exploratory
–Descriptive
–Causal
• Exploratory Research
–Major Emphasis is on gaining ideas and insights
–Provides better understanding of a situation
–Not designed to come up with final answer or decision
–Used to produce hypothesis.
–It allows the researcher to familiarize him/herself with the problem or
concept to be studied.
–It is the initial research, before more conclusive research is undertaken
–Results of this research can not be generalized
–Results are not representative of whole population being studied
–This type of research is conducted to test concepts before they are put in
the marketplace.
–In concept testing, consumers are provided either with a written concept or
a prototype for a new, revised or repositioned product, service or strategy.

Example:-
Particular line of vehicles dropped in sells last quarter.
Researcher conducts interviews with potential car buyers and notice that
they seem to be more excited about new styles.
Hypothesis:- style preference have changed resulting in lower sales
• Types of exploratory research
–Literature Review
–Depth interviews
•Tap the knowledge and experience of the people who have encountered this
problem before.
–Focus Groups
•Interview with small number of people
–Case Analysis
•Studying Examples of problem
Exploratory Research
• As the term suggests, exploratory research is often conducted because a problem has not been clearly defined as yet,
or its real scope is as yet unclear. It allows the researcher to familiarize him/herself with the problem or concept to be
studied, and perhaps generate hypotheses to be tested. It is the initial research, before more conclusive research is
undertaken. Exploratory research helps determine the best research design, data collection method and selection of
subjects, and sometimes it even concludes that the problem does not exist!
• Another common reason for conducting exploratory research is to test concepts before they are put in the
marketplace, always a very costly endeavor. In concept testing, consumers are provided either with a written concept
or a prototype for a new, revised or repositioned product, service or strategy.
• Exploratory research can be quite informal, relying on secondary research such as reviewing available literature
and/or data, or qualitative (definition of qualitative research) approaches such as informal discussions with
consumers, employees, management or competitors, and more formal approaches through in-depth interviews, focus
groups, projective methods, case studies or pilot studies.
• The results of exploratory research are not usually useful for decision-making by themselves, but they can provide
significant insight into a given situation. Although the results of qualitative research can give some indication as to the
"why", "how" and "when" something occurs, it cannot tell us "how often" or "how many". In other words, the results
can neither be generalized; they are not representative of the whole population being studied.
• Example:
An example in the business environment might be an exploratory study of a new management
technique in order to brief a management team. This would be a vital first step before deciding
whether to embrace the technique
• Descriptive Research
–Used to describe things or characteristics of population or phenomenon
being studied.
•For Ex:- Market potential for a product
•Demographics of consumers
•Attitude of consumers
–It does not answer the question about why/when/how characteristics
occurred.
–It requires clear specification of the who, what when, where, what and
how of the research.
–Do not collect data until hypotheses are developed and clear answers
about who, what when, where, what and how are available.
– The results of descriptive research may be useful in aiding a marketing
decision
Descriptive Research(Statistical Research)

• Descriptive research or statistical research provides data about the population or universe being studied.
But it can only describe the "who, what, when, where and how" of a situation, not what caused it.
• The objective of descriptive research is to describe things, such as the market potential for a product or
the demographics and attitudes of consumers who buy the product.
• Descriptive research is used when the objective is to provide a systematic description that is as factual
and accurate as possible. It provides the number of times something occurs, or frequency, lends itself to
statistical calculations such as determining the average number of occurrences or central tendencies.
• One of its major limitations is that it cannot help determine what causes a specific behavior, motivation
or occurrence. In other words, it cannot establish a causal research relationship between variables.
• The results of descriptive research may be useful in aiding a marketing decision.
• common types of descriptive research designs are
Observation and
Surveys
Case Study is also a type of research design used in descriptive research.
Example:
A detailed set of data on the profile of clients would be an example of this type of report. By
understanding the customer better, sales and marketing management will be able to take better
decisions on new product development.
 Major Types of Descriptive Studies

Descriptive
Studies

Consumer Market
Sales Studies
Perception Characteristic
And Behavior Studies
Studies

• Market Potential • Image •Distribution

• Market Share • Product Usage •Competitive

Analysis
• Sales Analysis • Advertising

• Pricing
• Types of Descriptive Studies
–Cross Sectional Study
•Sample Survey
–Longitudinal Study
•Continuous Panel
•Discontinuous Panel
Cross Sectional Study
• A cross-sectional design involves the collection of information from any given sample of
population elements only once.
Sample Survey
Cross Sectional Study in which sample is selected to be representative of the target
population and in which emphasis is given on generation of summary statistics such as
averages and percentages.
• Longitudinal Study
– In a longitudinal design, a fixed sample (or samples) of population elements is measured
repeatedly on the same variables

– A longitudinal design differs from a cross-sectional design in that the sample or samples
remain the same over time
 Research Design

Exploratory Research
Design Conclusive Research
Design

Descriptive Causal Research

Research

Cross-Sectional Longitudinal
Design Design

Repeated Measures Time Series

 Cross Sectional vs. Longitudinal Designs

Cross Sectional
Design Sample
Surveyed at T1

Same Sample
Longitudinal Design Sample also Surveyed
Surveyed at T1 at T2

Time T1 T2
• Explanatory/Causal Research
• Investigation of cause and effect relationship
• Used to test hypothesis
• Results of this research can be used to forecast.
 Explanatory/Causal research

• The objective of causal research is to test hypotheses about cause and effect
relationships.
• In this form of research researcher tries to determine if the manipulation of one
variable , called independent variable, affects another variable, called dependent
variable.
• The term explanatory research implies that the research in question is intended to
explain, rather than simply to describe, the phenomena studied.
• Explanatory studies establish causal relationships between variables. In these
studies the emphasis is on studying a situation or a problem in order to explain the
relationships between variables.
• Explanatory research is useful for studying relations between causes and
symptoms. The researcher tries to identify the factors, which together cause a
certain phenomena.
• According to Reynolds (1971) the goal with the explanatory study is to develop a
theory that could be used to explain the empirical generalization that was
developed in the descriptive stage.

• Eg. Testing marketing scenarios, such as what might happen to product sales if
changes are made to the product design or if advertising is changed.

• Results of causal research can be used to forecast what might happen if changes
are made.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN EXPLORATORY AND CONCLUSIVE RESEARCH
Exploratory Conclusive
Objective: To provide insights To test specific
and understanding. hypotheses and
examine relationships.

Characteristics: Information needed is Information needed

defined only loosely. is clearly defined.
Research process Research process
is flexible and is formal and
unstructured. structured.
Sample is small and Sample is large and
nonrepresentative. representative.
Analysis of primary Data analysis is
data is qualitative. quantitative.

Findings : Tentative. Conclusive.

 
Outcome: Generally followed by Findings used as input
further exploratory or into decision making.
conclusive research.
 Exploratory Descriptive Causal
Objective: Discovery of ideas Describe market Determine cause
and insights. characteristic or and effect
functions. relationships.
Character- Flexible. Marked by the prior Manipulation of
istics Varsatile. formulation of two or more
Often the front end specific hypothesis. independent
of total research variables.
design Preplanned &
structured design. Control of other
mediating
variables.
Methods: Expert surveys. Secondary data Experiments
Pilot surveys (Quantitative)
Case Studies Surveys.
Secondary Data Panels.
(Qualitative) Observational and
Qualitative Other Data
Research
 Types of Research based on Extent of Theory……..
• Theoretical Research
• Empirical Research
• Empirical Research
–Empirical research is based on observed and measured phenomena and derives
knowledge from actual experience rather than from theory or belief.
–It is a way of gaining knowledge by means of direct and indirect observation or
experience.
–Such research is often conducted to answer a specific question or to test a
hypothesis (educated guess).
–Empirical research is data oriented.
–In this research primary data are collected, analysed, and tested to prove some
hypothesis
–In this research researcher collects the data to test the theory.
• This type of research has four major characteristics:
–A research question is posed.
–The target behavior, population, or phenomena is defined.
–The process is described in detail so that the research can be verified and duplicated. For
example, a researcher might include information about any use of instruments and control
groups.
• For Ex. Major researches conducted on health issues usually adopt empirical
research.
• Theoretical research
–Theoretical research generally uses the findings from existing works to develop
new ideas through analysing existing theory and explanations.
–These new ideas are not tested through collecting evidence in the form of
primary data.
–It is based on secondary data instead of primary data.
–This type of research has no test component.
–In this research researcher arrives at conclusion based on existing literature.
–For Ex. An organization may conduct a research on its employees and their
motivation levels based on Herzberg’s two-factor theory.
Types of research from the viewpoint of methodology
–Qualitative
–Quantitative
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

 Qualitative research aims to achieve an in-depth understanding of a situation.

 It is used to gain an understanding of underlying reasons, opinions, and motivations.

 It provides insights into the problem or helps to develop ideas or hypotheses for potential
quantitative research. It is preliminary stage of quantitative research

 Qualitative Research is also used to uncover trends in thought and opinions, and dive deeper into
the problem.

 Qualitative data collection methods vary using unstructured or semi-structured techniques.

 Some common methods include focus groups (group discussions), individual interviews, and
participation/observations.

 The sample size is typically small, and respondents are selected to fulfill a given quota.

 Qualitative research is collecting, analyzing and interpreting data by observing what people do and
say.

 Qualitative research refers to the meanings, definitions, characteristics, symbols, metaphors, and
description of things.

 Qualitative research is much more subjective

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH contd…..

 The nature of this type of research is exploratory and open ended.

 Small number of people are interviewed in depth and or a relatively small number
of focus groups are conducted.

 For Ex. Research conducted to study and analyze human behavior.

 Research conducted to know target customers’ buying preferences for launching

a new product.
Data Collection Methods of Qualitative Research

• Interviews. One-on-one conversations that go deep into the topic at

hand.
• Case studies. Collections of client stories from in-depth interviews.
• Expert opinions. High-quality information from well-informed sources.
• Focus groups. In-person or online conversation with small groups of
people to listen to their views on a product or topic.
• Open-ended survey questions. A text box in a survey that lets the
respondent express their thoughts on the matter at hand freely.
• Observational research. Observing people during the course of their
habitual routines to understand how they interact with a product, for
example.
Qualitative research can be further classified in the following type.

I. Phenomenology:-a form of research in which the researcher attempts to

understand how one or more individuals experience a phenomenon.

Eg:-we might interview 20 victims of bhopal tragedy.

II. Ethnography:- this type of research focuses on describing the culture of a group
of people. A culture is the shared attributes, values, norms, practices, language,
and material things of a group of people.

Eg:-the researcher might decide to go and live with the tribal in Andaman island
and study the culture and the educational practices.

III. Case study:-is a form of qualitative research that is focused on providing a

detailed account of one or more cases
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

 In social sciences, “quantitative research refers to the systematic empirical investigation

of quantitative properties and phenomena and their relationships”.

 Quantitative research aim to measure the quantity or amount and compares it with past
records and tries to project for future period.

 Structured questionnaires, inventories, and computers are used as data collection

methods.

 Data is numerical, statistical.

 Large sample sizes are used to produce generalizations for a population.

 Research begins with a hypothesis-the goal being to explain a specific phenomena with
numbers and objective data.

 Research design is structured and well-tested.

 Quantitative Research is used to quantify the problem by way of generating numerical

data or data that can be transformed into usable statistics.
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH Contd….
 It is used to quantify attitudes, opinions, behaviors, and other defined variables –
and generalize results from a larger sample population.

 Quantitative Research uses measurable data to formulate facts and uncover

patterns in research

 Quantitative data collection methods are much more structured than Qualitative
data collection methods.

 Quantitative data collection methods include various forms of surveys – online

surveys, paper surveys, mobile surveys and kiosk surveys, face-to-face interviews,
telephone interviews, longitudinal studies, website interceptors, online polls, and
systematic observations.

eg:-Total sales of soap industry in terms of rupees cores and or quantity in terms
of lakhs tones for particular year, say 2008,could be researched, compared with
past 5 years and then projection for 2009 could be made.
• Surveys and questionnaires :-use carefully constructed questions, often ranking or scoring options or
using closed-ended questions. A closed-ended question limits respondents to a specified number of
answers. For example, this is the case in multiple-choice questions. Good quality design is particularly
important for quantitative surveys and questionnaires.
Research Agenda Qualitative Quantitative

Focus Understand & interpret Describe, explain & predict

Involvement High as researcher is participant and catalyst Researcher keeps himself away to reduce
bias.
Purpose In-depth understanding, theory building Describe, predict and test theory
Sample Design Non-probability, purposive Probability
Research design May involve during research Pre-determined
Often uses multiple methods One method or mixed methods
Consistency is not expected Consistency is critical
Longitudinal approach Cross sectional or longitudinal
Sample Size Small Large
Participants They need to be explained the process or purpose No preparation desired to avoid bias.

Data Type Verbal or pictorial description Data is reduced to numerical codes

Data analysis Primarily non-quantitative-human coding and analysis Statistical and mathematical methods
Always ongoing during the research process dominate.
Distinction between facts and judgment less clear May be ongoing
Maintains clear distinction between facts
and judgment
Insights and Deeper level of understanding is the norm; determined Limited by opportunity to probe
meanings by type and quantity of free-respose questions. respondents; quantity of the original data
Researchers, participants interaction need insights. instrument.

Insights follow data collection and data

entry with a limitation to interview
participants.
Research Agenda Qualitative Quantitative

Data Collection Methods Unstructured and Semi Structured More structured than quanlitative

focus groups (group discussions), individual include various forms of surveys –

interviews, and participation/observations, case
study,open ended questions, game or role playing
etc.
online surveys, paper surveys, mobile
surveys and kiosk surveys, face-to-face
interviews, telephone interviews,
longitudinal studies, website interceptors,
online polls, and systematic observations.

Type of knowledge Subjective Objective

Characteristic Flexible Fixed and Controlled
 Research Process
• Research process contains a series of closely related activities which
has to carry out by a researcher. Research process requires patients
• Following are the main steps in social or business research process.
1. Selection of Research Problem
2. Extensive Literature Survey
3. Making Hypothesis
4. Preparing the Research Design
5. Sampling
6. Data collection
7. Data Analysis
8. Hypothesis Testing
9. Generalization and Interpretation
10. Preparation of Report
Research Process Contd…..
1. Selection of Research Problem
 The research topic or problem should be practical,
relatively important, feasible, ethically and politically
acceptable
2. Literature Review or Extensive Literature Survey
 After the selection of research problem, the second step
is that of literature mostly connected with the topics.
 For this purpose academic journals, conference and govt.
reports and library must be studied.
Research Process Contd…..
3. Making Hypothesis
–The development of hypothesis is a technical work depends on
the researcher experience.
– The hypothesis is to draw the positive & negative cause and
effect aspects of a problem.
– Hypothesis narrows down the area of a research and keep a
researcher on the right path.
4. Preparing the Research Design
 It may draw the conceptual structure of the problem.
 Any type of research design may be made, depend on the
nature and purpose of the study. information about sources, skill,
time and finance is taken into consideration.
Research Process Contd…..
5. Sampling
 The researcher must design a sample.
 It is a plan for taking its respondents from a specific areas or
universe.
 The sample may be of two types:
 1. Probability Sampling
 2. Non-probability Sampling
6. Data collection
 The collection of information must be containing on facts which is
from the following two types of researcher.
 Primary Data Collection: Primary data may be from the following. 1.
Experiment 2. Questionnaire 3. Observation 4. Interview
 Secondary data collection: it has the following categories: 1. Review
of literature 2. Official and non-official reports 3. Library approach
Research Process Contd…..
7. Data Analysis
–When data is collected, it is forwarded for analysis which is
the most technical job.
– Data analysis may be divided into two main categories.
Data Processing: it is sub-divided into the following.
• Data editing, Data coding, Data classification, Data tabulation, Data
presentation, Data measurement
– Data Exposition: Date Exposition has the following sub-
categories.
•Description, Explanation, Narration, Conclusion/Findings,
Recommendations/Suggestions
Research Process Contd…..
8. Hypothesis Testing
Research data is then forwarded to test the hypothesis
 Do the hypothesis are related to the facts or not?
To find the answer the process of testing hypothesis is
undertaken which may result in accepting or rejecting the
hypothesis.
9. Generalization and Interpretation
The acceptable hypothesis is possible for researcher to arrival at
the process of generalization or to make & theory.
Some types of research has no hypothesis for which researcher
depends upon on theory which is known as interpretation.
10. Preparation of Report
A researcher should prepare a report for which he has done is
his work. He must keep in his mind the following points:
10. Preparation of Report
A researcher should prepare a report for which he has done
is his work. He must keep in his mind the following points:
Report Design in Primary Stages
The report should carry a title, brief introduction of the problem and
background followed by acknowledgement. There should be a table of
contents, grapes and charts
 Main Text of the Report
 It should contain objectives, hypothesis, explanations and
methodology of the research. It must be divided into chapters and every
chapter explains separate title in which summary of the findings should
be enlisted. The last section would be clearly of conclusions to show the
main theme of the R-study
 Closing the Report
 After the preparation of report, the last step in business research
process contains of bibliography, references, appendices, index and
maps or charts for illustration. For this purpose the information should
more clearer.
Other types of research
• Historical Research
• Ex-Post-Factor
• Evaluation Research
• Action/Participatory Research
• Historical research:-it allows one to discuss past and
present events in the context of the present condition,
and allows one to reflect and provide possible answers
to current issues and problems.
Eg:-the lending pattern of business in the 19th century.

• Grounded theory:- it is an inductive type of research,

based or grounded in the observations of data from
which it was developed; it uses a variety of data
sources, including quantitative data, review of records,
interviews, observation and surveys
1. Descriptive research
2. Analytical research
3. Fundamental research
4. Conceptual research
5. Empirical research
6. One time research or longitudinal research
7. Field-setting research or laboratory research or simulation
research
8. Clinical or diagnostic research
9. Exploratory research
10.Historical research
11.conclusion oriented research
• Different Types of Research
Research can be conducted in a number of different ways for many different purposes. Most research conducted today is in the
corporate sector, and the reasons for this should be obvious.
1.  Survey Research
Developed since the 1930's, survey research seeks to identify what large numbers of people (mass) think or feel about certain things. It is
used extensively in politics and marketing (such as TV advertising).
• Examples of survey research are
• Public opinion polls
• Mail Surveys
• Telephone Surveys
• Consumer Surveys (in the Mall)
• An amazing fact about survey research is that the amount of error (expressed as plus and minus a certain percentage) is determined by
the sample size (the number of people surveyed). Most opinion polls use a sample size of around 1500, which has a margin of error of ±
3%. Using a larger sample size than 1500 gives a slight reduction in the error margin, and using a smaller sample size than 1500
significantly increases the error margin.
Surveys are often considered biased because
• They ask leading questions
• The sample population is biased in a particular way
• The questions were not clear
• The respondents were influenced by the researcher
• Increasingly we find the Internet being used to conduct survey research, with the use of opinion polls and questionnaires. This is due to
the ease of creating on-line questionnaires and the power of analysing the data in real-time by the use of powerful database servers.
•  
Focus Groups
A focus group gathers in-depth information by interviewing six to twelve experts
in an informal discussion that lasts one to two hours. An experienced interviewer
gathers opinions of the group.
• Benefits of Focus Groups
• Opinions are canvassed on specific topics
• Immediate feedback or additional questions are possible
• Can help identify key issues quickly
• Problems Using Focus Groups
• The group can be dominated by a particular person or viewpoint
• Only a limited number of questions can be dealt with
• The interviewer could bias the results
• Typical Uses of Focus Groups
• Gauging consumer reaction to products (such as the pre-release of a movie or
product)
• Understanding why consumers buy or don't buy certain products
• Identifying the use of products and services
• Case Studies
A case study looks at existing information that is readily available
and attempts to draw conclusions from this information.
Information has been collected and stored from a wide variety of
sources about many issues. Much of this information is readily
available in the public domain.
• The researcher begins with a number of research questions. For
instance, a researcher might want to look at the impact of
information technology in South Africa since the overthrow of
white rule. The researcher will identify information in the public
domain, such as tele-density, number of Internet hosts, and other
data. From this information, the researcher will draw qualitative
conclusions.
• Case studies allow existing information to be reused in new ways
that the original collectors of the data did not envisage.
• Delphi Method
The Delphi method surveys the opinions of "expert panels". The
research is conducted in three rounds, where the information is
gathered, refined and then feed back to the expert participants.
The feedback stage allows issues to be sharpened and helps to
highlight the major issues involved.
• Round one involves an in-house panel that seeks to identify the
research questions for the experts. It also conducts a pre-test of the
survey.
• The second round involves an examination of the issues by the
expert panel. At this stage, additional items are often suggested
that may have been overlooked. The panel responses and
additional items are combined to the original questionnaire.
• In the third round, the panel make judgements on the items. This
sometimes takes the form of a multiple-choice questionnaire.
• Content Analysis
Content analysis is often used in quantitative research to study trends or occurrences of
information. During World War II, the allies monitored the number and types of songs played on
European radio stations. By comparing the music played on German radio to that of other radio
stations in occupied territory, the allies were able to measure the changes in troop concentration
on the continent.
• Other early uses of content analysis were attempts to verify authorship of documents. Knowing
that certain authors chose certain words, many scholars attempted to show that some documents
had undergone a process or redaction or rewriting by subsequent editors.
• Content analysis is heavily involved in the use of television. A common exercise is to use content
analysis to measure the incidences of violence on television or in print.
• There are three main characteristics associated with content analysis
• It is systematic
The content to be analysed is carefully selected, and all content is treated in the same way.
• It is objective
If another researcher performs the same analysis, the same conclusions should result.
• It is quantitative
It tries to determine amounts, such as 55% of news items are concerned with domestic violence.
• How is content analysis done? Let us consider an exercise. Our research
hypothesis is that "More than 75% of leading news items are concerned with
violence". This is based on the media assumption that "if it bleeds, it leads". Firstly,
we have to define what we mean by violence. Since content analysis of the mass
media is a well-established field, there are many sites on the Internet that can
assist in providing useful definitions. Let us consider that violence in this research
means bodily violence inflicted by one person on another, resulting in injury,
hospitalisation or death.
• Having decided on what violence means, we then monitor the lead news items
over a number of weeks. An adequate sample size must be chosen to eliminate
bias, as it is possible that a particular news item could be repeated over several
days (for instance, a war could break out). We might decide to select three days a
week at random over a period of three to four weeks.
• Coders are responsible for coding each story into a violent/non-violent category.
There is a form for each day that the coder fills in. These forms are collected at the
end of the study and then the results tabulated accordingly.
• The coding form shown below is a more comprehensive one for analysing each
item of the evening news broadcast. Coders use this form to mark the category of
the particular news item under consideration.
 Time in Research

cross-sectional vs. longitudinal

repeated measures time series

 Variables
• variable…
–any observation that can take on different values
• attribute…
–a specific value on a variable
 Examples
Variable Attribute

age
 Examples
Variable Attribute

age 18, 19, 20, etc...

 Examples
Variable Attribute

Gender or sex
 Examples
Variable Attribute

Gender or sex Male, female

 Examples
Variable Attribute

satisfaction
 Examples
Variable Attribute
satisfaction 1 = very satisfied

2 = satisfied

3= somewhat satisfied

4 = not satisfied

5 = not satisfied at all

 Types of Variables
• independent variable (IV)…
–what you (or nature) manipulates in some way
• dependent variable (DV)…
–what you presume to be influenced by the IV
 Examples
IV DV
health status

exercise
participation
social support

intervention