Sampling and Sampling Distributions

Parameter and Statistic

The word statistics has two meanings. If one summarizes the data gathered from a sample
into one figure, like, average, then the figure is known as statistic. Thus, the terms mean, median,
percentage, etc. are also called statistics.
Parameter on the other hand, are summary figures from data gathered from a population.
Measures from a population are denoted by lower Greek letters like the Greek letter u [mu], for
population mean o [sigma] for population standard deviation.
Example 1:
Parameter. Suppose that from a survey, the following data were gathered:

Number of Teenagers Average Age

Asked
Province 220 18
The table above shows that the average age of teenagers is 18 years, that is, x= 18. Here 18 is a statistic.
The number of elements in the sample.
Note that in the population survey there were more than 50 million teenagers asked of their ages while in
the sample only 220 were asked. In reality if one will ask more than 50 million people, it will take almost
100 years to accomplish the task even if it takes only one minute to ask one teenager.

Methods of Sampling
In order for sampling to be valid, every element of the population must have an equal and
independent chance of being selected into the sample. To do this the concept of randomness is
very essential.
Randomness means that the outcome is obtained only by chance. It is not pre- determined.
Examples of random outcomes are results of rolling a pair of dice, when a coin is tosted or the
outcome of a raffle draw.
A sampling procedure that employs the methods of randomization is called probabilistic
sampling. There are four kinds of probabilistic sampling in statistics and there are:) simple
random sampling, 2)systematic random sampling, 3) stratified sampling and 4) cluster
sampling.
The Scientific Calculator

[Shift] [Ran#] [=]

Every time you press this sequence of buttons, a2-digit or 3-digit number will appear on screen beginning
with zero and a decimal point. Note that none of the numbers repeat. These numbers are random numbers.
You may disregard the decimal point and read the number as a number between 0 and 999 inclusive.
Example 1:
[Shift] [RAN#] [=]--0.747
[=]--0.191
[=]--0.552
Thus the numbers 0.747. 0.101, and 0.552 may be read as 747, 191, and 552.
Case 1
If there are one thousand people in the group numbered from 0 to 999 and you are to choose 3
individuals at random, then person number 191, 552 and 747 are the ones chosen at random.
Case 2
If there are less than one thousand, employ modulo arithmetic on the random numbers that
exceed the sample size from said random number until the difference is less than or equal to
the sample size.
For example. Suppose there 300 people or elements to be chosen from. Then
[Shift] [RAN#][=]-.596
Thus the random number is 596. We subtract 300, we get 596-300=296. Therefore, we chose
the 296th person.
Suppose, our random number is 922. Then, 922─300=622 (still exceeds). We subtract again,
we obtain 622─300=322(still exceeds). We subtract again, we get, 322─300=22. Hence,
choose the 22nd person.
 Sampling and Random Sampling
In a simple random sampling, the steps are:
1. Construct a sampling frame by assigning numbers to the individuals in the population from
1 to the last number;
2. Generate random numbers to choose the individuals that may be included in the sample;
Example 2: Suppose that from the list of 25 people below, we choose 8 individuals at random
using simple random sampling.
3. Dan 6. Phoebe 11. Eunice 16. Kristine 21. Ezra
2. Jose 7. Francis 12. Marie 17. Enrique 22. Princess
3. Angelo 8. Stephen 13. Rochelle 18. Jovi 23. Apple
4. Maria 9. Sunshine 14. Sam 19. Kamille 24. Joy
5. Teresa 10. Fiona 15. Norton 20. Roshiane 25. Kevin
Since the people are already numbered, we proceed by generating random numbers:
[Shift] [RAN] [=]--.911, 0.832, 0.163, 0.774, 0.805, 0.356, 0.127, 0.858
Hence, the random numbers are:
911, 832, 163, 774, 805, 356, 127, 858.
If we keep on subtracting 25, we obtain:
11, 7, 13, 24, 5, 6, 2, 8
So we choose;
11, 7, 13, 24, 5, 6, 2, 8.
Thus, the person to be included in our sample are:
11. Eunice, 7. Francis, 13. Rochelle, 24. Joy, 5. Teresa,
6. Phoebe, 2. Jose, and 8. Stephen.
 Systematic Random Sampling
In a systematic random sampling we generate only one random number and the rest of the
elements will be selected by adding a fix number to the generated random number start.
The steps in using systematic random sampling are as follows:
1. Decide on the size of your sample (number of individuals to be chosen) and take note of
the last number on the list;
2. Number the elements of the population from 1 to the last number possible;If they are
already numbered, renumber them from 1 to to the last number possible.
3. Divide the last number in the list by the sample size;
4. Round off the quotient to the next lower whole number;
5. The rounded off figure will be the interval of the systematic random sampling.
6. Generate one random number between 1 and the rounded-off figure in Step #4 and call it the
random start. You can use the modulo arithmetic to achieve the random list.
7. Add to the random start the rounded-off figure in Step #4.until you reach the required
sample size.
Example 3: Suppose from the list of 25 people above, we choose 8 individuals using systematic random
sampling.
Solution:
Step 1. Sample size=8;Last number is 25
Step 2. Quotient: 25÷8=3.125
Step 3. next whole number=3 (Rounded-off figure)
Step 4. Interval 3.
Step 5. [Shift] [RAN#] [=]-→0.851. (The random number is 851)
If we keep on subtracting 3 from this number we get 2
So,the random start is 2.
Step 6. 2+3=5
5+3=8
8+3=11
11+3=14
14+3=17
17+3=20
20+3=23
Thus the individuals included in the sample size are:
2. Jose, 5. Teresa, 8. Stephen, 11. Eunice, 14. Sam,
17. Enrique, 20. Roshiane, and 23. Apple.
 Stratified Random Sampling
In stratified random sampling, we first group the population into homogeneous subsets then obtain
individuals from the subset to be included into the sample. The number of individuals to be taken from the
subsets shoukd be proportional to the size of the subset. If the subset is big them more individuals will be
taken from that subset than the subset with less elements.
In our example above, we may classify the individuals into males and females. Thus, we have male stratum
and female stratum. Other attributes of the subsets could be nationality, profession, occupation, race, etc.
Example 4:
Obtain a sample of 8 individuals using stratified random sample on the list of 25 students above
with gender as strata.
Solution:
Sample size=8;
Step 1. Proportional allocation:
For Males: 10 males/25 students=0.40;
Thus 40% of the males will be taken as part of the sample or
0.40x8=3.2 (3 will be taken from the males)

For Females: 15 males/25 students=0.60;

Thus, 60% of the females will be taken as part of the sample or
0.60x8=4.8 (5 will be taken from the female)
 Step 2. Group the students according to gender:

Male Female
1. Dan 1. Maria
2. Jose 2. Teresa
3. Angelo 3. Phoebe
4. Kurt1. 4. Stephanie
5. Francisco 5. Sushine
6. Sam 6. Fiona
7. Norton 7. Eunice
8. Enrique 8. Marie
9. Kevin 9. Rochelle
10. Alexis 10. Jovi
11. Ezra
12. Princess
13. Joy
14. Charisse
15. Dawn
Step 3. Using modulo arithmetic 9with modulo 10 for males), we have

101─>1(Dan); 62 ─>2 (Jose); 53 ─>3 (Angelo)

Using modulo arithmetic (with modulo 15 for females), we have
124 ─>4 (Stephanie);45 ─>0 (If zero take the last number=15);
─>15 (Dawn)
156 ─>6 (Fiona); 17 ─>2 (Teresa); 58 ─> 13 (Joy)

List of persons included in the sample:

Males: Dan, Jose, Angelo
Females: Stephanie, Dawn, Fionna, Teresa, Joy
Notes: The numbers that appear before the arrows are calculator-generated random numbers.
The numbers that appear after the arrows are numbers lower than the modulo after continuous
subtraction of 10 (for the males) of 15 (for the females)
Steps in Stratified Random Sampling
1. Decide on the sample size and take note of the population size.
2. Group the individual according into homogeneous subsets
3. Take note of the sizes of the subsets;
4. Divide the first subset size by the population size and multioly the quotient by the sample
size. This is called proportional allocation; and
5. Round off the product in Step 4. The rounded off figure will be the number of individuals
to be taken from the first subset.
6. Do the same to the next subset until the last subset.
7. Select the elements from the subsets using simple random sampling or systematic random
sampling.
8. List the sample elements
Cluster Sampling
When the elements of the population are distributed around in an area that can be sub-divided into
geographical units, then sampling maybe done through these units. The geographical units are called
clusters.

Steps in Cluster Sampling

1. Determine the clusters and sub-clusters where the population belong;
2. Randomly select the clusters for sampling;
3. Randomly select the sub-clusters in Step 2;
4. Obtain the sample from the sub-clusters selected in Step 3 using simple random sampling or
systematic random sampling; and
5. List the sample elements.
Example 5: Suppose there are 25 people living in a certain province and the provonce has 3 towns A,B,
C with A having 2 barangays, A1, and A2. Town B has 3 barangays B1, B2, B3, and C has 2 barangays
C1,and C2. the specific addresses of the 25 people are as follows:

Residents Town Barangay Residents Town Barangay

Dianne A A1 Alexis A A2
Jane B B2 Kevin B B1
Chanti C C1 Joy C C1
Teresa B B2 Apple B B3
Evelyn C C1 Princess A A1
Lou B B2 Ezra A A2
Febble A A2 Kamille C C1
Chezka A A1 Jovi B B2
Alexandra B B3 Marie C C2
Claire A A2 Enrique A A1
Charisse C C2 Angel C C1
Dawn B B1 Kristine B B3

Hazel C C2
Obtain a sample of size 3 from the population of 25 people using cluster sampling.
Step 1. The clusters in this sampling are the three towns of this province;
Step 2. We randomly select one town out of the three, say Town
A
Step3. We randomly select one sub-cluster (barangay)out of the 2 barangays, and say,
barangay A2 was selected.
Step 4. Since the residents of A2 are:
Febbie, Claire, Alexis, Ezra, we select 3 out of the four and we have a sample of size 3.
Suppose the persons selected at random were:
Claire, Alexis, Ezra.
Then the elements of our sample are:
Claire, Alexis, Ezra.
Sampling Distribution of a Statistic
A sampling distribution of a statistic is a probability distribution of a statistic of interest.
Example:
Suppose population is composed only of 3 measures; 1, 2, and 3. The possible samples of size 2
that can be drawn from this population are the following:

1. From the population {1, 2, 3}, the following are all possible samples of size 2:
Sample 1: {1, 1}
Sample 2: {1, 2}
Sample 3: {1, 3}
Sample 4: {2, 1}
Sample 5: {2, 2}
Sample 6: {2, 3}
Sample 7: {3, 1}
Sample 8: {3, 2}
Sample 9: {3, 3}
There are 9 possible samples of size 2 from a population of size 3.
Since there are 9 samples, there are also 9 sample means out of this distribution, namely,
X̅ 1= 1, X̅ 2 = 1.5, X̅ 3=2, X̅ 4= 1.5, X̅ 5= 2, X̅ 6 = 2.5, X̅ 7 = 2, X̅ 8 = 2.5, X̅ 9 =3
We now summarize these means as follows:
a. One sample has mean of 1;
b. Two samples have mean of 1.5
c. Three samples have mean of 2
d. Two samples have mean of 2.5
e. One sample has mean of 3
From the summary, we see that
f. The probability of mean equal to 1 is 1/9
g. The probability of mean equal to 1.5 is 2/9
h. The probability of mean equal to 2.0 is 3/9
i. The probability of mean equal to 2.5 is 2/9
j. The probability of mean equal to 3 is 1/9
Therefore, the sampling distribution of the means from the population of measures 1, 2, and 3,
and of size two each is as follows:
 Sampling Distribution of the means

Sampling mean 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

1/9 2/9 3/9 2/9 1/9

Mean, Variance, and Standard deviation

The following are the formulas for computing the mean and variance:
Mean
Variance=
Standard Deviation= ,square root of the variance where
X1, X2,…, Xn are random variable values.
u= mean of the measures
Example:
Find the mean, variance and standard deviation of the following measures: 2, 5, 6,3, 9, 12, and 15.
Solution:
Here we take x1=2, x2=5, x3=6x4=3, x5 =9, x6=10, x7=12, x8=15. Hence, n=8
a. Mean=
=
= 7.75 (answer)

b. Variance=

=17.94 (answer)

c.
Standard Deviation= ⎷17.94
=4.24 (answer)