CHAPTER FOUR

PROJECT
IMPLEMENTATION
Project Implementation
A project that is deemed to be sound at the appraisal
stage qualifies for implementation.
Project implementation is the Process whereby
“project inputs are converted to project outputs”.
May be looked at as:
Putting in action the activities of the project.
Putting into practice what was proposed in the
project document (i.e. transforming the project
proposal into the actual project.)
Management of the project or executing the
project intentions.
To implement a project means to execute all the on and off
site work tasks necessary to bring a project from the
feasibility study to its operational stage.
Project implementation consists of carrying out the activities
with the aim of delivering the expected outputs.
If there has been good preparation and programming, then
efficient and timely implementation depends on good
management supervision, technical staff and timely release
of funds.

Execution process involves coordinating people and

resources, as well as integrating and performing the
activities of the project in accordance with the project
management plan.
Project Implementation phase involves:
 Projectactivation and
 Project operation

Project activation
 This means making arrangements to have the project started.
It include:
 Acquisition of land
 Securing essential clearances
 Identifying technical collaborators/consultants
 Arranging for infrastructure facilities
 Preliminary design and engineering
 Calling of tenders (which includes evaluation of bids and
negotiations).
 Securing of supplies and setting up the administration and etc.…..
Project Operation
 This is practical management of a project. Here,
project inputs are transformed into outputs to
achieve immediate objectives.
 Implementation tends to be complicated in practice
by many unforeseen problems. Flexibility is
therefore required at this stage to enable the
successful execution of the project.
Project Implementation Planning
It outlines the steps a team will use to achieve a shared objective.
An implementation plan covers all aspects of a project including
budget, timeline, and personnel.
If PIP not carried out during the project design process and
embodied in the project documents, it is carried out at the project
activation stage.
Project implementation planning is intended:
 to draw attention to the planner the financial implications,
 the project scheduling and

 the possibilities of the early detection of implementation

delays and their financial consequences.

A well-designed project implementation plan clarifies and

describes what the project should deliver and within what
time-frames.
Project Implementation Plan includes
A) The project implementation schedule: this is
concerned with
The work to be done (What activities can
produce expected project outputs?)
the sequence of these activities?
The time it takes to complete the task(activities)
The responsibility for the task (Who will be
responsible for carrying out each activity?)
B) The role of implementing agency:
The specific responsibilities of the key staff
during project implementation and monitoring
are outlined.
C) Beneficiary participation:
 Involvement of the beneficiaries in planning and
implementation and what is expected from them should
spelled out.
D) Organizational structure and staffing: considers the
following points
project structure for purposes of management
qualifications and skills for the staff
job descriptions and specifications for the staff
technical assistance if needed 
E) Financial management:
This looks at funds management, accounting period,
financial reports & statements and how oten they will
be made?
F) Reporting system
This looks at who will report to whom and how often?
Standard design of reporting format is needed

G) Supervision of implementation of project schedule

• This involves a set of checks and balances to
ensure that the schedule is being adhered to.
 Time control and remedial action
 Time taken to implement project activities is
one measure of successfulness of supervision or
monitoring of project implementation.
 Supervisor pays particular attention to time
control measures, time scheduling and its
supervision, time extension and postponement,
damages for non-completion and defect or warranty
period.
Generally, Implementation planning and scheduling
include the following major tasks:
 Determination of the type of works
 Determination of the logical sequences of events
in the work task.
 Preparation of a time phased implementation
schedule, positioning all the work tasks correctly
in time.
 Determination of the resources needed

 Documentation of all implemented data.


Project
Techniques Management:-
for managing project implementation

is the application of knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to project

activities in order to meet or exceed stakeholder needs and expectations
from a project.


The management of large projects requires analytical techniques for
scheduling activities and allocating resources.


The common network techniques used for project management
implementation are:
1. CPM (Critical Path Method ).
2. PERT (Project Evaluation and Review Technique )

Applications of these techinques are pervasive, from construction to
software development
 SOME TERMS IN NETWORK PLANNING

Event:
 is a specific instant of time which marks the start
and the end of an activity.
 consumes neither time nor resources.
 denoted by a circle or a node and the event
number is written within the circle.
Activity:
 Tasks or jobs to be performed in a project are called
activities.
 An activity may be a process, a material handling or
material procurement cycle.
 An activity is shown by an arrow and it begins and ends
with an event.
 Unlike event, an activity consumes time and resources.
 An activity is denoted by letters and along with estimated
time to accomplish the activity written.
 Critical Activities:
 Are those activities, if consume more than their estimated
time, the project will be delayed.
 Is denoted by a thick arrow to distinguish it from a non-
critical activity.
 Critical Path:
 Critical Path (CP) is formed by critical activities.
 Is the longest path and consumes the maximum time.
 Any amount of delay on CP will delay the entire project
by the same amount.
 WBS (Work Breakdown Structure) represents-

 a systematic and logical breakdown of the project into its

component parts.
 Constructed by dividing the project into major parts, with
each of these being further divided into sub-parts.
 This is continued till a breakdown is done in terms of
manageable units of work for which responsibility can be
defined.

WBS is a deliverable oriented grouping of project

elements which organizes and defines the total scope of
Critical path Method (CPM)
Is used for planning and controlling project activities in
the most logical and economic sequence of operations for
accomplishing a project.
If the duration of each activity of the project is known with
certainty, the Critical Path Method (CPM) can be used to
determine the length of time required to complete a project.

CPM can also be used to determine how long each activity in

the project can be delayed without delaying the completion
time of the project.

It is used for optimizing resources allocation and minimizing

overall cost for a given project.
 Steps in CPM Project Planning

1. Specify the individual activities.

2. Determine the sequence of those activities.

3. Draw a network diagram.
4. Estimate the completion time for each activity.

5. Identify the critical path (longest path through the

network)
6. Update the CPM diagram as the project progresses.
Has mostly been used in deterministic situations like

construction projects and Employs more or less standard

components and stable technology.
 Consider The Following Project Activities
Activities Immediate Duration (in months )
Predecessors

A - 2
B - 5
C - 4
D B 5
E A 7
F A 3
G B 3
H C,D 6
I C,D 2
J E 5
K F,G,H 4
L F,G,H 3
M M I 12
N J,K 8
 E(7) 5 J(5)
2
2) F(3) 8
A(
K(4) N(
8)
B(5) G(3)
1 3 6
L(3)
C( 9
4 )
D(5)

(6)
H
4 12)
7 M(
I(2)

Activity, Duration
In order to find the critical path we have two phases:
1. Determine the earliest start time (ES) of all
nodes, which is called forward pass.
2. determine the latest finish time(LF) of all nodes,
which is called backward pass.
i.e.
= (+ )
=()

Where, j = ending activity

i = beginning activity
 15
8 9
2 E(7) 5 J(5) 20
20
2
8
F(3
) 4) N
( (8
2)

5 16 K )
A(

5 16
0 B(5) G(3) L(3) 28
1 3 6 9
0 28

6)
D(5)

C( (
4) H 12)
M(
7
4
I(2) 16
10 12
10

LF
Start and Finish Times
ES
To find the critical path the following three conditions
should be fulfilled:
=
=
=
 15
8 9
2 E(7) 5 J(5) 20
20
2
8
F(3 4)
) K ( N
(8
2)

5 16 )
A(

5 16
0 B(5) G(3) L(3) 28
1 3 6 9
0 28

6)
D(5)

C( (
4) H 12)
M(
7
4
I(2) 14
10 12
LF
10
ES
=
Start and Finish Times and Critical Path
=
=
 In any network, there will be activities with zero slack.
 Any delay to these activities will produce a delay in the
completion of the project as a whole.
 We call these tasks critical activities, and a path through the
network made up of critical activities is called a critical path.
 In the previous example, critical activities and the critical
path for the project are shown in bold.
 i.e. for this project, the critical path is B-D-H-K-N
And the total duration is 5+5+6+4+8= 28
 The critical path is:
 the longest path through the network, and
 its duration is equal to the duration of the project.
Advantages of CPM
It highlights the critical activities on which management should
focus attention to reduce project completion time.
It helps management in diverting resources from non-critical to
critical activities. In other words, it facilitates optimum utilization
of resources.
It provides a technique of planning and scheduling project.
Scheduling helps to determine completion date and to evaluate
progress towards the completion of the project.
It gives complete information about the significance, size, duration
and performance of an activity.
It helps to identify potential bottlenecks and to avoid unnecessary
pressure on the paths that will not result in earlier completion of the
project.
It helps to identify the sequence of jobs that determine the earlier
completion date for the project.
Limitations of CPM
It operates on the assumption that there is a precise known time that
each activity in the project will take. But this may not be true in real
situations.
CPM does not incorporate statistical analysis in determining time
estimates.
Each time changes are introduced into network the entire evaluation of
the project has to be repeated and a new critical path has to be
determined.
It is not suitable for situation which does not have definite start and
definite finish.
It tends to produce exceptionally good results on the CPM Planned jobs
which is not possible to reproduce on later jobs.
It is not a panacea for all ills. It can not by itself solve a problem. It only
facilitates a thorough examination of the problem and alternative
solutions for it.
Exercise- Description of X Information Systems
Project
 Begin by assuming that the project durations listed in
table below are guaranteed, so that they are not
Immediate Duration
subjected to randomness.
Activity Description Predecessors
(weeks)
A Specify functional and user interface features --- 4
B Design and code functional component A 4
C Test and debug functional component B 4

D Internal audit of functional test C 2

E Design and code graphical user interface A 6
F Integrate functional component and interface C& E 6
G Train accounting personnel on interface E 6
H Train personnel and tested using integrated system F,G 4
Earliest and Latest Start and Finish Times
 In a network, earliest start and finish times are found by repeatedly
calculating forward from the beginning of the project until the end
(END).
 Use the following equations:
Earliest Start Time = ES = max[EF of immediate predecessors]
Earliest Finish Time = EF = ES + activity duration

 Latest start and finish times for each activity are found by working
backwards, from the end of the project to the beginning.
 Use the following equations:
Latest Finish Time = LF = min[LS of immediate successors]
Latest Start Time = LS = LF - activity duration
Activity Slack, Critical Activities, and Critical Paths
 Activity Slack denotes the amount of time each
activity can be delayed without violating the
entire project duration. The activity slack for each
node may be easily calculated:

Activity Slack = SLACK = LS - ES = LF - EF

 Activities with zero slack cannot be delayed

without affecting the entire project duration and
are called critical activities.
Project Network

C, 4 D, 2
B, 4
End, 0

A,4
E, 6 F, 6 H, 4

G, 6

Key

Activity, Duration
.

12 14
D, 2, 8
4 8 8 12 20 22

B, 4, o C, 4, 0
0 4 4 8 8 12 22 22
End, 0, 0
A , 4, 0 4 10 12 18 18 22 22
E, 6, 2 F, 6, 0 H, 4, 0
22

0 4 6 12 12 18 18 22
G,106, 2 16

12 18

KEY
ESActivity,
Time Duration,
EFSlack
Time

LS Time LF Time
 In the previous example, critical activities and the critical path for the
project are shown in bold.
 i.e. for this project, the critical path is A-B-C-F-H-END.

 Some activities, such as D, E, and G, have slack greater

than zero.
 The start times of these activities may be delayed without
affecting the length of the entire project.
 The durations of these activities may also be extended
without pushing back the project completion time.
 However, if delays and extensions exhaust the size of the
activity slack, these activities become critical activities, too.
PERT:
If the duration of activities is not known with certainty,
the Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT)
can be used to estimate the probability that the project will
be completed by a given deadline.
That is , A distinguishing feature of PERT is its ability
to deal with uncertainty in activity completion times.
Mostly used in non-deterministic or probabilistic
situations such as: space research, R & D projects.
There is little past history on which to base network
construction and time estimates.
Thus, PERT is a network model that allows for
randomness in activity completion times.
How to Estimate activity times under PERT System
(TIME ESTIMATES IN PERT)
 Optimistic time, (to) :
This is the shortest time taken by an activity if
everything goes exceptionally well.
 Most likely time, (tm) :
 It is the time in which the activity is normally
expected to complete under normal
contingencies.
 Pessimistic time, (tp):
 It is the maximum time that would be required to
complete the activity if bad luck encounters at
 Consider The Following Project Activities
Activities Immediate Duration (in weeks )
Predecessors

O M P

A - 5 6 7

B - 1 3 5

C - 1 4 7

D A 1 2 3

E B 1 2 9

F C 1 5 9

G C 2 2 8

H E,F 4 4 10

I D 2 5 8

J H,G 2 2 8
Required:
 construct the project network
 Calculate mean(expected duration) using the formula;

 Find the critical path and expected project completion time.

 D (2) 5
I (5
2 )
( 6)
A
E (3) 8
6
3
1

H (5)
B (3)

(5) )
F (J 3
C(
4) 7
4
G (3)

Activity, Duration
Activities Duration (in weeks ) Mean Variance
duration

O M P

A 5 6 7 6 0.11
B 1 3 5 3 0.44
C 1 4 7 4 1.00
D 1 2 3 2 0.11
E 1 2 9 3 1.78
F 1 5 9 5 1.78
G 2 2 8 3 1.00
H 4 4 10 5 1.00
I 2 5 8 5 1.00
J 2 2 8 3 1.00
 12
10 8
6 D(2) 5
I(5
2 )
6)
A( 9
E(3) 17
6 9 8
3 17
0
1
B(3)

H(5)
0 6
3
(5) )
F (J 3
C(
4) 7
4 14
G(3)
14
4
4

The critical path will be ….. C-F-H-J = 4+5+5+3 = 17

Advantages of PERT
It focuses attention on critical or bottle neck elements of
the project so that a manger may either allocate resources to
them or keep a careful watch on them as the project
progress. It permits control by exception and better
management of resources.
 It provides a forward looking type of control or a feed
forward control.
It provides an up-to-date information on the progress of the
project so that the necessary steps may be taken.
It helps in coordinating different parts of the project so as
to achieve completion of the project in time.
Limitations of PERT
It is based on time estimates rather than known time for each
activity. There may be errors in time estimates due to human
bias.
It emphasis on time not costs.
It is not practicable for routine planning of recurring activities. It
is useful in complex projects consisting of numerous activities
which are independent of each other and whose completion
times are uncertain.
Time estimates to perform activities constitute a major limitation
of PERT.
Probabilities are calculated on the assumption that a large
number of independent activities operate on critical path and as
such the distribution of total time is normal. This assumption
may not be true in real life situations.
Homework
 What is the probability of completing the project on or
before 22 weeks.
Note: to find the probability, fist you have to calculate the
variance of the critical activities using this formula
and sum the variance of the critical activities and get the
standard deviation (square root of the total variance
variance) and then apply the following formula”
P(x ≤ 22) = P

x is the probability of finishing with the given week i.e. 22

and with the help of standard normal distribution table you
will get the probability of completing the project on or
before 22weeks.
 Project duration can be reduced-
o by assigning more labor to project activities, often in the form
of overtime, and
o by assigning more resources (material, equipment, etc).
 However, additional labor and resources cost money and
hence increase the overall project cost.
 Thus, the decision to reduce the project duration must be
based on an analysis of the trade-off between time and cost.
 Project crashing-
 is a method for shortening the project duration by reducing
the time of one or more of the critical project activities to a
time that is less than the normal activity time.
 This reduction in the normal activities times is called
‘crashing’.
 Crashing is achieved by devoting more resources (in terms
of money) to the activities to be crashed.
 Reading assignment
Why is project implementation so important?
Mention the Factors that affect the success of
project implantation and problems in project
implementation
Chapter End!