FILTRATION AND

CLARIFICATION
Filtration and clarification

Filtration
■ The process in which solids are separated from liquids by means of a porous medium
which retain the solids but allow the liquid to pass through it
■ It leads to optically transparent liquid free from insoluble solids, colloidal hazes or
insoluble liquid

Clarification
 This term is used when the solids present in the
liquid is very small (<1%), and filtrate is
required product
Filtration and clarification

Different terms

Feed or slurry
■ The suspension of solids and liquid to be filtered is called as feed or slurry

Filter medium
■ Porous medium through which slurry is forced to pass

Filter cake
■ The solid collected on the filter medium is called as filter cake
Filtration and clarification

Filtrate
■ The clear liquid which passes through the filter is called filtrate

Cake Filtration
■ When solids collected on the filter medium is the desired product then the process is
known as cake filtration
Mechanism of filtration

■ The flow of solid is resisted by the filter medium while the liquid is allowed to pass.

■ As the filtration processed the retention of the solids on the filter media goes on
increasing which acts as the secondary and sometime more efficient filtering
medium
Rate of filtration

■ Rate of filtration is depend upon number of factors and expressed by Darcy’s law as
under

Where

V= Volume of the filtrate

t= Time

K= Constant for the filter medium and filter cake

A= area of the filter medium

∆P= Pressure difference above and below the filter medium

Factor affecting rate of filtration

■ These factors include

1. Area of the filter surface
2. Particle size of the solid to be removed
3. Pore size of the filter media
4. The resistance of the filter cake and filter media
5. Viscosity of the liquid to be filtered
6. Temperature
7. Pressure difference across the filter
1. Area of the filter surface

■ Rate of filtration is directly proportional to the area of the filter surface

■ Greater the filtering surface greater will be the rate of filtration
■ For example; with the use of pleated filter paper filtration is increased

2. Particle size of the solid to be removed

■ Rate of filtration is directly proportional to the particle size of the solids to be removed
3. Pore size of the filter media

■ Rate of filtration is directly proportional to the pore size of the filter media

4. The resistance of the filter cake and filter media

■ The rate of flow will be greatest at the beginning of the process
■ With the formation of filter cake, filtration process get slows down
■ This cake also act as secondary filter medium
5. Viscosity of the liquid to be filtered

■ The rate of filtration is inversely proportional to the viscosity of the liquid to be filtered

■ Liquids with low viscosity get filtered quickly whereas thick liquid get filtered slowly

■ The rate of filtration of such liquid can be increased by applying pressure on the
viscous liquid or by increasing the temperature of liquid to be filtered
6. Temperature

■ Increased temperature reduce viscosity of thick liquids, so these can be filtered

easily (e.g. Syrups, liquid paraffin etc.)

■ In some cases process is so constructed that it can be maintained at high

temperature through which viscous liquids are to be filtered
7. Pressure difference across the filter

■ The rate of filtration is directly proportional to the pressure difference across the filter
bed

■ The rate of filtration can be increased by increasing the pressure on the liquid to be
filtered (cake filtration) or by reducing the pressure under the filter media i.e. in the
receiver (vacuume filtration)
Filter media
■ The surface or medium upon which solids are retained in the process of
filtration is known as filter media
■ An ideal filter media should have the following properties
1. It should be chemically inert
2. It should have high retention power for the solids but should allow the
maximum passage of the liquids
3. It should have sufficient mechanical strength to withstand filtration
pressure
4. It should absorb negligible amounts of dissolved material
5. It should be resistant to the corrosive action of the liquid
Filter media
Factors Affecting In The Selection of Filter Media

■ While selecting the filter media the following factors must be taken into considerations
1. Size of the particles to be filtered
2. Amount of the liquid to be filtered
3. Nature of the product to be filtered i.e. a solution suspension or a viscous preparation
4. Purpose of filtration i.e. only to get clear preparation or to get a clear sterile preparation
Different types of Filter media

■ 1. Filter paper
■ 2. Woven materials
■ 3. Cotton wool
■ 4. Glass wool
■ 5. Asbestos
■ 6. Kraft paper
■ 7. Sintered glass
■ 8. Membrane Filter
■ 9. Cartridge Units
1. Filter paper

■ Most commonly used media for filtration

■ Different grade and qualities of filter paper are
available
■ Depending upon the pore size they are referred to
as coarse, medium and fine
■ A high quality filter paper give maximum filtering
efficiency
■ Disadvantage of using it as it shed very fine
particles to the filtrates and have tendency to
absorbed small quantity of liquid
2. Woven materials
■ Cloth made form silk, wool, rayon or glass act as filter media
■ Fine muslin made from cotton is widely used for
removing very coarse particle but it can shed
particles and have great tendency to absorb liquids

■ Nylon cloth also use for coarse filtration, it is

superior for pharmaceutical purpose as it is not
affected by the molds, fungus or bacteria and has
negligible absorption capacity
Woven materials

Advantages

1. Woven wire cloth made from stainless steel is

durable, long lasting and easily cleaned

2. It is resistant to chemicals, can easily be

sterilized and afford good surface for cake
filtration
3. Cotton wool
■ Commonly used for filtering the coarse particles.
■ A small tuft of cotton wool is placed in the neck of the funnel
and liquid is poured over it.
■ It has disadvantage that small filaments are detached from it
which are carried to the filtrate.
■ This can be reduced by using cotton wool prepared from high
quality cotton with long staple and by wetting the cotton with
menstrum before inserting it in the funnel.
4. Glass wool

■ It is used for highly corrosive chemical materials i.e. strong acids, strong alkalies and
oxidizing agents
■ Other media can’t be used for this type of filtration because it will get destroyed during
the action
■ Although glass wool provides very effective filter medium but it may contaiminate the
filtrate with glass fiber
5. Asbestos

■ It is also used for filtering corrosive materials

■ Its prepared by compressing shredded asbestos tightly under pressure
■ These pads have disadvantages like
i. Impart alkalinity to the filtrate
ii. Certain substance like alkaloids may get absorbed on them
iii. Asbestos fiber may contaminate the filtrate
6. Kraft paper

■ Mainly used for plate and frame filters and horizontal plate filters

■ They offer control porosity, limited absorption properties and are cheap

■ When used in large filter presses they require a support of cloth or wire mesh to prevent
rupture of the paper with pressure
7. Sintered glass

■ It consist of pyrex glass powder and sifted to produce granules of

uniform size
■ Which are then heated to fuse them
■ Interstices between the particle form a connective system through
which liquid can pass
■ It can be fused in an ordinary funnel or in Buchner funnel for
filtration under reduce pressure
■ Available in various shapes and grades
Sintered glass
Advantages
■ Useful in preparation of parental solutions and opthalamic solutions
■ Useful in filtering corrosive liquids and oxidizing agents
■ It don’t shed any particle, don’t absorb any liquid and can be reused
■ For cleaning they may be scrubbed gently with the help of brush or a
stream of water is introduced in reverse direction or by chemical
method
8. Membrane Filter

■ These are thin porous membranes made from cellulose ester or similar polymeric
materials like nylon, Teflon or PVC
■ Mainly used for ophthalmic and parenteral solutions
9. Cartridge Units

■ They are used for removing low percentage of solids ranging from 100 microns to less
then 1micron in size
■ Two type of cartriges units are available
i. Surface type
made form kieselghur or porcelain, can easily be cleaned by backflushing
ii. Depth type
Consist of fibrous media, can be used only once because it is difficult to clean
Filter Aids
■ Substances which when added to the liquid to be filtered, reduce the resistance of the
filter cake and increase filtration
■ While filtering liquids containing slimy compressible materials, the filter media soon
get clogged
■ These substances form a porous, non-compressible cake which can retain the solids
particles but allow the liquid to flow through it
■ It is added in concentration of 0.1-0.5% before filtration
Filter Aid

■ An ideal filter aid must have these properties

 It should be chemically inert
 It should have low specific gravity
 It should be insoluble in the liquid to be filtered
 It should form a porous cake
 It should be readily recoverable from the liquid
Examples includes Kieselghur, talc, charcoal, asbestos, papar pulp, kaolin, chalk,
magnesium carbonate and bentonite
Method and equipment required for
filtration
■ Filter Funnels
■ Buchner funnel
Filter Funnels

■ Funnels are conical shaped device which help in pouring the liquids in
narrow mouth container

Generally Made up of glass, polyethylene, copper, aluminum or stainless

steel

■ Glass funnels made from neutral glass are most commonly used for small
scale filtration
Filter Funnels

■ Generally funnel with plane surface are used but they may be fluted, grooved or ribbed
to increase the downward flow of the filtrate

■ A white filter paper of suitable pore size is selected which is folded in such a way that it
fits in the funnel

■ To increase the rate of filtration a pleated filter paper is used by which effective filtration
surface will be increased to a considerable extent
Buchner funnel

■ Also known as Hirsch funnels

■ Made up of porcelain which are modified in such a way that the disc of filter paper is
supported on a perforated plate
■ These funnels are especially used for filtration under reduced pressure
■ Also used for washing the precipitate
Hot water funnel

■ It is double wall funnel made up of metal

■ Viscous substances such as liquid paraffin, glycerin, castor oil

and fatty substances like wool fat, bees wax, soft paraffin, hard
paraffin, ointments and cream etc. are difficult to filter at
ordinary temperature but they can be filtered easily if the
temperature of the funnel is maintained at a higher level
throughout the process which is done by using hot water funnels
■ Boiling water or steam is circulated in the jackted funnel
Sintered glass funnels

■ These funnels are used for filtering parental

products, ophthamic preparations, solutions of
potent substances, corrosive liquids and
oxidizing agents
Filter leaf

■ It consist of a frame in which a drainage screen or a grooved plate is enclosed

■ Whole unit is covered with a cloth which act as a filter media
■ Inside of the frame is connected with an outlet and an attachment to connect to the
vaccume pump
■ Frame may be of any space i.e. round, square or rectangular
■ Filter leaf is immersed in the container having the slurry to be filtered and the vaccume
system is connected to the filtrate outlet
■ When the vaccume will be created the filtration will be created the filtration will start
and the filtrate will go on collecting in the receiver
Filter leaf

■ Cake will deposit on the outer surface of the filter cloth which can be easily washed
with water or backward flow of air through the unit
■ Advantages
 By this method filtration can be done through any vessels
 It is most satisfactory method if the solid contents in the liquid are not more then
5%
 Labour cost is also very low for this method
Filter Press

■ Plate and frame filter press is widely used in pharmaceutical industries

■ It consist of number of hollow frames and solid plates
■ Plates have grooved surface to support the filter cloth
■ Each plate has an outlet for the filtrate
■ Frames are open with an inlet for the liquid to be filtered
■ The plate and frame are assembeled alternatively and each set work as unit
■ A number of these sets may be arranged horizontly or vertically and fixed with the outer
frame of the press
Filter Press

■ The liquid to be filtered is allowed to enter the frame under pressure

■ The filtrate passes through the filter medium on to the surface of the plate while the filter
cake is retained on the frame

■ The filtrate drain out of the plate through the outlet

■ The operation is continued till the frame is filled with the filter cake

■ When the process is stopped, the filter cake is removed from the frame and the process is restarted
Filter Press:
Advantages
■ The construction is very simple and a number of materials ranging from wood to
stainless steel may be used for its construction
■ It is the most versatile filter press because the filter media can be varied to suit a
particular requirement and even bacteria proof filtration may be carried out with it
■ It can be used for coarse to fine filtration
■ The operation and mainteness is easy
■ The filter cloth can be easily replaced
Filter Press:
Disadvantage
■ Filter press is not suitable for small quantities of the liquid
■ It is a costly process, high labour cost and filter cloth
■ Process is only suitable for slurry contain less then 5% of solid ingredienst
■ Leakage between the plates may take place through faulty assembly
Rotary Filters

■ Work on the principle like that of filter leaf

■ Consist of perforated metal drum wrapped with
filter cloth or other suitable material to act as filter
medium
■ Drum is partially immersed in the tank containing
the material to be filtered
■ Drum is rotated at a slow speed i.e. even less then 1
rev per min, and vacuum created
Rotary Filters

■ As soon as vacuum will be created the filtrate will

enter into the drum through the filter medium
■ Process could be continued till slurry is exhausted
■ Filter cake will form on the surface of filter
medium which could be removed with help of
knife
Rotary Filters: Advantages

■ Since the filtration process is automatic and continuous, the overall labour cost are very
low
■ The area of filtration is very high so a large quantity of slurry can be filtered at a time
■ The thickness of filtration cake can be controlled by altering the speed of rotation of the
drum
Disadvantages include
■ The filter is very expensive
■ This process can not be used for slurries containing low percentage of solids
Meta Filters

■ It consist of grooved drainage rod on which a series of metal

rings made from stainless steel are packed
■ The rings are of 22mm diameter, 15mm internal diameter and
0.8mm in thickness
■ Rings are tightened on the draining rod with a nut and it form
a trapped channels of 250µm-25µm
■ Unit is placed in vessel containing the slurry to be filtered
■ When the vacuum is created the liquid passes through the
pack into the drainage rod and ultimately to the receiver

(a) Surface view of the ring

(b) Section through filter
Meta Filters: Advantages

■ The filters may be fitted with the steam jacket for

the filteration of very viscous liquid such as syrups
or oily substances
■ useful for clarification of parentrals solutions
■ Used as strainers for coarse particles
■ For fine particles first filter aid i.e. kieselghur or
charcoal is first deposited on rings and then
filtration carried out

(a) Surface view of the ring

(b) Section through filter
Filtration under reduced pressure

■ Buchner funnel is used to carry out filtration under reduced pressure

■ This funnel is fitted in the filteration flask made up of specially strong glass
■ Side tube of this flask is attached to another flask to avoid the risk of back suction
■ The second flask is connected to the filter pump
■ A filter paper of good quality cut to the size need to place over the perforation of
Buchner funnel
■ Liquid to be filtered is pored on the filter paper
Filtration under reduced pressure

■ When vacuum is created by opening the water tap to which filter paper is attached,
filtration starts at high speed and filtrate collects in filtration flask

■ This is a common method employed in laboratories for filtration of liquid and for
washing the precipitate on analytical work
Filtration of volatile liquids

■ Volatile and inflammable liquids can not be filtered through ordinary method

■ Because these materials can be lost through evaporation and liable to explode

■ Therefore for filtration of these liquids, the funnel must be covered and receiver
must be closed and provision must be made for the air to escape from the receiver
Sedimentation and Decantation

■ A simplest method to separate the solid from its soluble impurities

■ Method consist of allowing the slurry to stand in a suitable vessel until the solids
either settle at the bottom or rise to the top of the liquid

■ The process of removing the clear liquid from the top is called “Decantation” and
setting of solids at the bottom is known as “sedimentation”

■ These methods are used for washing the precipitates and magmas
Straining

■ In this method slurry to be filtered is poured on the muslin cloth or a porous substances
which will allow the liquid to pass but will retain the solids over it
It is a general method for separating the solid impurities from liquid

■ Apparatus used is consist of strainer medium and a support or frame

■ The strainer medium is usually colorless cloth materials
■ The strainer medium must be washed before use