PLANAR GROWTH

 Nucleation does not take place randomly in the metal/alloy melt throughout the
liquid because in the actual case of solidification, and uniform lowering of
temperature throughout the melt cannot be obtained.
 There exist a thermal gradient between the cool mould wall surface exposed to
the ambience and the interior of the solidifying melt that would eventually form
the casting.
 Therefore, nucleation is initiated at the mould surface and the growth of the
solid phase proceed being directed towards the centre of the casting.
 This growth takes place in a preferred crystallographic direction as dictated by
the characteristic of the solidifying crystal.
 With the lapse of time, depending on the no of effective nuclei and the initial
growth rate setup by the initial temperature gradient, the growth of the crystals
in the lateral direction gets obstructed.
 This is because the laterally growing crystals impinge into each other restricting
growth of the neighbouring crystals.
 Also any growth of any crystal ahead of the others, into the high temperature
melt is inhibited due to the unfavourable temperature conditions.
 Such a situation gives rise to planar or plane front growth where in a seemingly
plane interface proceeds into the melt causing growth
DENDRITIC GROWTH
 Dendritic crystalline growth takes place on solidification of a metal/alloy melt
when the liquid–solid interface moves into supper cooled liquid at a
temperature lower than that of the interface.
 To understand dendritic growth it is important to realise that any
protuberance on the solid face may tend to be stable and act as a centre for
further growth in preference to other locations due to undercooling.
 The general advancement of the interface is retarded by the liberated lateral
heat of crystallisation or by a solute barrier, but the local growth centres have
the possibilities to grow into the zones of supercooling. This gives rise to
dendritic growth.
 This unidirectional dendritic growth produces columnar dendritic structure.
 In a pure metal dendritic growth is detected by interrupted freezing and
decantation (once a portion freezes, it is separated from the liquid, i.e., the
liquid is decanted from the freezing crystal).
 On the other hand, in alloys dendritic growth is revealed by the characteristic
cored structure.
 Coring is resulted from the differential freezing processes.
 The centre of the dendrites are deficient in solute which are rejected to the
interdendritic zone
THERMAL SUPERCOOLING

 The thermal conditions get grossly distributed when sufficient accumulation of the
liberated latent heat of crystallisation at the interface is experienced. The liberated heat
now disturbs the thermal gradient.
 Though there is a positive thermal gradient due to the cold mould surface, the local
evolution of latent heat produces a reverse temperature gradient at the interface.
 Growth does not occur due to the general advancement of the planefront but by
preferential growth processes in these undercooled pulls in the melt.
 The planar growth pattern is disturbed as the minimum temperature in the liquid melt is
not witnessed at the interface. Plane-front growth is hindered and growth occurs by
other means.
 Depositions of further atoms on the surface of the nuclei may occur in regions of greater
under cooling in preference to the interface.
 The thermal super cooling greatly influences the final structure of the solidified melt.
CONSTITUTIONAL SUPERCOOLING
Constitutional supercooling in an alloy is best illustrated in Figure.
 The Figure presents the solidification and hence the phase changes in a simple binary
alloy of ‘A’ and ‘B’. Let us consider the alloy of Co.
 The initial alloy deposited from Co has a composition confirming to C1Obviously,C1has
a composition pertaining to ‘B’ which is less than that of the original alloy ‘Co’.
Therefore, as C1 is formed, the residual liquid gets slightly enriched in ‘B’.
 Thus, as solidification proceeds ‘B’ is continuously rejected into the liquid. This
rejection occurs at the solid–liquid interface throughout the process of freezing.
 A constitutional gradient is, thus, created in the liquid, solute ‘B’ being continuously
rejected at the interface.
 The concentration of ‘B’ is maximum at the interface and gradually diminishes as one
goes towards the interior of the liquid melt.
CELLULAR GROWTH
 With a less marked undercooling, when the undercooling is not enough to form
dendrites, cellular growth may still take place.
 Thus,cellular growth precedes dendritic growth. The cellular substructure is produced as
a cluster of hexagonal rods.
 These rods grow into the liquid and reject solute on their boundaries at the respective
interfaces.
 After a certain level of undercooling is achieved by both thermal and the constitutional
means, cellular growth gives way to dendritic growth. This proceeds by the preferential
development of some of the cells.
 This intermediate, rod like structure is also referred to as Fibrous Dendrites.
 As shown in Figure 10 when the temperature gradient is very shallow or the rate of
freezing is very rapid, the undercooling achieved may be sufficient to promote
nucleations at points in the melt,
 CONTINUOUS CELLULAR
• LOW BONDING ENERGY • CELLS GROW AT LOW
• HIGHER VACANCY CONCENTRATION
CONSTITUTIONAL
AT THE SOLID-LIQUID INTERFACE UNDERCOOLING
• ACTIVATION ENERGY=DIFFUSION • NO SIDE BRANCHING
ACCTIVATION ENNERGY IN LIQUID IS • DIRECTION ANTIPARALLEL TO
VERY SMALL HEAT FLOW
• FAST INTEFACE RECTION OR LIQUID
SOLID CONVERSION
• ACCUMULATION OF SOLUTE IN
CELLS
• DRIVING FORCE FOR SOLIDIFICATION
IS • ADJUSTMENT OF CELL SPACING
BY STOPPING OR DIVISION OF
• G=H(T-TM)/TM
CELLS
 The metal casting industry plays a key role in all the major sectors of our economy.  There are
castings in locomotives, cars trucks, aircraft, office buildings, factories, schools, and homes. 
Metal Casting is one of the oldest materials shaping methods known  Casting or founding
means pouring molten metal into a mold with a cavity of the shape to be made, and allowing it
to solidify. When solidified, the desired metal object is taken out from the mold either by
breaking the mold or taking the mold apart. The solidified object is called the casting.  By this
process, intricate parts can be given strength and rigidity frequently not obtainable by any other
manufacturing process.  The mold, into which the metal is poured, is made of some heat
resisting material.  Sand is most often used as it resists the high temperature of the molten
metal.  Permanent molds of metal can also be used to cast products. .
 Advantages of casting over other forming process :
The metal casting process is extensively used in manufacturing because of its many advantages.
 casting is one of the most versatile manufacturing process.  Molten material can flow into
very small sections so that intricate shapes can be made by this process. As a result, many other
operations, such as machining, forging, and welding, can be minimized or eliminated.  It is
possible to cast practically any material that is ferrous or non-ferrous.  As the metal can be
placed exactly where it is required, large saving in weight can be achieved.  The necessary tools
required for casting molds are very simple and inexpensive. As a result, for production of a small
lot, it is the ideal process.  There are certain parts made from metals and alloys that can only
be processed this way.  Size and weight of the product is not a limitation for the casting
process.  casting imparts uniform directional properties and better vibration damping capacity
to the cast parts.  very heavy and bulky parts which are otherwise difficult to get fabricated
may be cast.  Metals ( like cast iron ) difficult to be shaped by other manufacturing processes
may be cast.  casting can be designed for equal distribution of loads and for minimum stress
concentration in order to achieve more strength and increased service life.  casting process can
be mechanized and usefully employed for mass production of components.
 Limitations of casting :
 Dimensional accuracy and surface finish of the castings made by sand casting processes are a
limitation to this technique. Many new casting processes have been developed which can take
into consideration the aspects of dimensional accuracy and surface finish. Some of these
processes are die casting process, investment casting process, vacuum-sealed molding process,
and shell molding process.  The metal casting process is a labour intensive process.
transportation vehicles.  turbine vanes  power generation  railways crossing  Aircraft jet
engine blades  Agricultural parts  sanitary fitting ( cast iron )
1. Flask: A metal or wood frame, without fixed top or bottom, in which the mold is formed. Depending
upon the position of the flask in the molding structure, it is referred to by various names such as drag –
lower molding flask, cope – upper molding flask, cheek - intermediate molding flask used in three piece
molding.
2. Pattern: It is the replica of the final object to be made. The mold cavity is made with the help of pattern.
3. Parting line: This is the dividing line between the two molding flasks that makes up the mold.
4. Molding sand: Sand, which binds strongly without losing its permeability to air or gases. It is a mixture
of silica sand, clay, and moisture in appropriate proportions.
5. Facing sand: The small amount of carbonaceous material sprinkled on the inner surface of the mold
cavity to give a better surface finish to the castings.
6. Core: A separate part of the mold, made of sand and generally baked, which is used to create openings
and various shaped cavities in the castings.
7. Pouring basin: A small funnel shaped cavity at the top of the mold into which the molten metal is poured.
8. Sprue: The passage through which the molten metal, from the pouring basin, reaches the mold cavity. In
many cases it controls the flow of metal into the mold.
9. Runner: The channel through which the molten metal is carried from the sprue to the gate.
10. Gate: A channel through which the molten metal enters the mold cavity.
11. Chaplets: Chaplets are used to support the cores inside the mold cavity to take care of its own weight
and overcome the metallostatic force.
12. Riser: A column of molten metal placed in the mold to feed the castings as it shrinks and solidifies. Also
known as “feed head”.
13. Vent: Small opening in the mold to facilitate escape of air and gases.
14. Chill : chills are metal objects which are placed in the mould to increase the cooling rate of castings to
provide uniform or desired cooling rate . 15. Baking sand : This is made up of used and burnt sand
 Molding Material and Properties :
A large variety of molding materials is used in foundries for manufacturing molds and cores. They include
molding sand, system sand or backing sand, facing sand, parting sand, and core sand. The choice of molding
materials is based on their processing properties. The properties that are generally required in molding
materials are:
Refractoriness -It is the ability of the molding material to resist the temperature of the liquid metal to be
poured so that it does not get fused with the metal. The refractoriness of the silica sand is highest.
Permeability -During pouring and subsequent solidification of a casting, a large amount of gases and steam
is generated. These gases are those that have been absorbed by the metal during melting, air absorbed from
the atmosphere and the steam generated by the molding and core sand. If these gases are not allowed to
escape from the mold, they would be entrapped inside the casting and cause casting defects. To overcome
this problem the molding material must be porous. Proper venting of the mold also helps in escaping the
gases that are generated inside the mold cavity.
Green Strength -The molding sand that contains moisture is termed as green sand. The green sand particles
must have the ability to cling to each other to impart sufficient strength to the mold. The green sand must
have enough strength so that the constructed mold retains its shape.
Dry Strength -When the molten metal is poured in the mold, the sand around the mold cavity is quickly
converted into dry sand as the moisture in the sand evaporates due to the heat of the molten metal. At this
stage the molding sand must possess the sufficient strength to retain the exact shape of the mold cavity and
at the same time it must be able to withstand the metallo-static pressure of the liquid material.
Hot Strength -As soon as the moisture is eliminated, the sand would reach at a high temperature when the
metal in the mold is still in liquid state. The strength of the sand that is required to hold the shape of the
cavity is called hot strength.
Collapsibility -The molding sand should also have collapsibility so that during the contraction of the solidified
casting it does not provide any resistance, which may result in cracks in the castings. Besides these specific
properties the molding material should be cheap, reusable and should have good thermal conductivity.
 Mold and its components :  A mold is formed into the geometric shape of a desired part.
Molten metal is then poured into the mold, the mold holds this material in shape as it solidifies.
A metal casting is created. Although this seems rather simple, the manufacturing process of
metal casting is both a science and an art.  Molds can be classified as either open or closed. 
An open mold is a container, like a cup, that has only the shape of the desired part. The molten
material is poured directly into the mold cavity which is exposed to the open environment.
 open type of mold is rarely used in manufacturing production, particularly for metal castings
of any level of quality. The other type of mold is a closed mold, it contains a delivery system for
the molten material to reach the mold cavity, where the part will harden within the mold.
There are many different metal casting processes used in the manufacture of parts. Two main
branches of methods can be distinguished by the basic nature of the mold they employ. There is
expendable mold casting and permanent mold casting. As the name implies, expendable molds
are used for only one metal casting while permanent molds are used for many. When
considering manufacturing processes, there are advantages and disadvantages to both.
Expendable Mold :
 Can produce one metal casting only  Made of sand, plaster, or other similar material 
Binders used to help material hold its form  Mold that metal solidifies in must be destroyed to
remove casting  More intricate geometries are possible for casting
Permanent Mold :
 Can manufacture many metal castings  Usually made of metal or sometimes a refractory
ceramic  Mold has sections that can open or close, permitting removal of the casting  Need
to open mold limits part shapes
Investment Casting Process :
 The root of the investment casting process, the cire perdue or “lost wax” method dates back
to at least the fourth millennium B.C. The artists and sculptors of ancient Egypt and
Mesopotamia used the rudiments of the investment casting process to create intricately detailed
jewelry, pectorals and idols.  The investment casting process alos called lost wax process
begins with the production of wax replicas or patterns of the desired shape of the castings.  A
pattern is needed for every casting to be produced.  The patterns are prepared by injecting
wax or polystyrene in a metal dies.  A number of patterns are attached to a central wax sprue
to form a assembly.  The mold is prepared by surrounding the pattern with refractory slurry
that can set at room temperature.  The mold is then heated so that pattern melts and flows
out, leaving a clean cavity behind.  The mould is further hardened by heating and the molten
metal is poured while it is still hot. When the casting is solidified, the mold is broken and the
casting taken out.
Investment casting is an industrial process based on and also called lost-wax casting, one of the
oldest known metal-forming techniques.
 Lost-foam casting is a modern form of investment casting that eliminates certain steps in the
process.  There are a variety of materials that can be used for the investment casting process,
including stainless steel alloys, brass, aluminum, and carbon steel.  The material is poured into
a ceramic cavity designed to create an exact duplicate of the desired part. Investment casting
can reduce the need for secondary machining by providing castings to shape.  It is generally
more expensive per unit than die casting or sand casting, but has lower equipment costs. It can
produce complicated shapes that would be difficult or impossible with die casting, yet like that
process, it requires little surface finishing and only minor machining.
 Types Of Sand Used In Sand Casting:
There are two general types of sand used in the manufacturing process of sand casting.
1. Naturally Bonded :  Naturally bonded sand is less expensive but it includes organic impurities
that reduce the fusion temperature of the sand mixture for the casting, lower the binding
strength, and require a higher moisture content.
2. Synthetic Sand :  Synthetic sand is mixed in a manufacturing lab starting with a pure (SiO2)
sand base. In this case, the composition can be controlled more accurately, which imparts the
casting sand mixture with higher green strength, more permeability, and greater refractory
strength. For these reasons, synthetic sand is mostly preferred in sand casting manufacture. 
Molding Sand Composition :
The main ingredients of any molding sand are:  Base sand,  Binder, and  Moisture
Base Sand -Silica sand is most commonly used base sand. Other base sands that are also used
for making mold are zircon sand, Chromites sand, and olivine sand. Silica sand is cheapest
among all types of base sand and it is easily available.
Binder - Binders are of many types such as:  Clay binders,  Organic binders and  Inorganic
binders  Clay binders are most commonly used binding agents mixed with the molding sands to
provide the strength. The most popular clay types are: Kaolinite or fire clay (Al2O3 2 SiO2 2 H2O)
and Bentonite (Al2O3 4 SiO2 nH2O).Of the two the Bentonite can absorb more water which
increases its bonding power.
Moisture -Clay acquires its bonding action only in the presence of the required amount of
moisture.  When water is added to clay, it penetrates the mixture and forms a microfilm, which
coats the surface of each flake of the clay.  The amount of water used should be properly
controlled. This is because a part of the water, which coats the surface of the clay flakes, helps in
bonding, while the remainder helps in improving the plasticity.
 Die casting is a metal casting process that is characterized by forcing molten metal under high pressure into
a mold cavity.  The mold cavity is created using two hardened tool steel dies which have been machined
into shape and work similarly to an injection mold during the process.  Most die castings are made from
non-ferrous metals, specifically zinc, copper, aluminum, magnesium, lead, and tin based alloys.  Depending
on the type of metal being cast, a hot- or cold-chamber machine is used.  The casting equipment and the
metal dies represent large capital costs and this tends to limit the process to high volume production.
 Manufacture of parts using die casting is relatively simple, involving only four main steps, which keeps the
incremental cost per item low.  It is especially suited for a large quantity of small to medium-sized castings,
which is why die casting produces more castings than any other casting process.  Die castings are
characterized by a very good surface finish (by casting standards) and dimensional consistency.  Two
variants are pore-free die casting, which is used to eliminate gas porosity defects; and direct injection die
casting, which is used with zinc castings to reduce scrap and increase yield.

Advantages of die casting :

 Excellent dimensional accuracy  Smooth cast surfaces  Thinner walls can be cast as compared to sand
and permanent mold casting  Inserts can be readily cast in place.  Reduces or eliminates secondary
machining operations. Casting tensile strength as high as 415 megapascals . Casting of low fluidity metals.
 It is very economical for large scale production.  Die casting gives better mechanical properties compared
to sand casting , because of the fine grained skin formed during solidification.  The die has a longer life ,
which is of the order of 300,000 pieces for zinc alloy and 150,000 for aluminium alloys.
The main disadvantage to die casting is the very high capital cost.  disadvantages are that the process is
limited to high-fluidity metals, and casting weights must be between 30 grams and 10 kg .
In the standard die casting process the final casting will have a small amount of porosity.  Thus
a related disadvantage of die casting is that it is only for parts in which softness is acceptable.
 Die casting is a very commonly used type of permanent mold casting process.  It is used for producing
many components of home appliances (e.g rice cookers, stoves, fans, washing and drying machines, fridges),
motors, toys and hand-tool.
 Chvorinov's Rule is a mathematical relationship first expressed by Nicolas Chvorinov in 1940.
that relates the solidification time for a simple casting to the volume and surface area of the
casting.  In simple terms the rule establishes that under otherwise identical conditions, the
casting with large surface area and small volume will cool more rapidly than a casting with small
surface area and a large volume.  The relationship can be written as:

Where, t is the solidification time, V is the volume of the casting, A is the surface area of the
casting that contacts the mold,n is a constant, and B is the mold constant.
 The mold constant B depends on the properties of the metal, such as density, heat capacity,
heat of fusion and superheat, and the mold, such as initial temperature, density, thermal
conductivity, heat capacity and wall thickness  . The S.I. units of the mold constant B are . 
According to Askeland, the constant n is usually 2, however Degarmo claims it is between 1.5
and 2. The mold constant of Chvorinov's rule, B, can be calculated using the following formula:

Where Tm = melting or freezing temperature of the liquid (in Kelvin) To = initial temperature of
the mold (in Kelvin) ΔTs = Tpour − Tm = superheat (in Kelvin) L = latent heat of fusion (in [J.Kg−1])
k = thermal conductivity of the mold (in [W.m−1.K−1)]) ρ = density of the mold (in [Kg.m−3]) c =
specific heat of the mold (in [J.Kg−1.K−1]) ρm = density of the metal (in [Kg.m−3])
cm = specific heat of the metal (in [J.Kg−1.K−1])
 It is most useful in determining if a riser will solidify before the casting, because if the riser
solidifies first then defects like shrinkage or porosity can form.
 Gas Defects :  A condition existing in a casting caused by the trapping of gas in the molten
metal or by mold gases evolved during the pouring of the casting.  The defects in this category
can be classified into blowholes and pinhole porosity  Pinhole porosity occurs due to the
dissolution of hydrogen gas, which gets entrapped during heating of molten metal.
Causes  The lower gas-passing tendency of the mold, which may be due to lower venting, lower
permeability of the mold or improper design of the casting.  The lower permeability is caused
by finer grain size of the sand, high percentage of clay in mold mixture, and excessive moisture
present in the mold.  Metal contains gas  Mold is too hot  Poor mold burnout
 Shrinkage Cavities :  These are caused by liquid shrinkage occurring during the solidification
of the casting. To compensate for this, proper feeding of liquid metal is required. For this reason
risers are placed at the appropriate places in the mold. Sprues may be too thin, too long or not
attached in the proper location, causing shrinkage cavities.  It is recommended to use thick
sprues to avoid shrinkage cavities.  Molding Material Defects :  The defects in this category
are cuts and washes, metal penetration, fusion, and swell.
Cut and washes  These appear as rough spots and areas of excess metal, and are caused by
erosion of molding sand by the flowing metal.  This is caused by the molding sand not having
enough strength and the molten metal flowing at high velocity. The former can be taken care of
by the proper choice of molding sand and the latter can be overcome by the proper design of
the gating system. Metal penetration : When molten metal enters into the gaps between sand
grains, the result is a rough casting surface.
Fusion : This is caused by the fusion of the sand grains with the molten metal, giving a brittle,
glassy appearance on the casting surface.
Swell : Under the influence of metallostatic forces, the mold wall may move back causing a swell
in the dimension of the casting.  A proper ramming of the mold will correct this defect.
Inclusions :Particles of slag, refractory materials sand or deoxidation products are trapped in the
casting during pouring solidification.  The provision of choke in the gating system and the
pouring basin at the top of the mold can prevent this defect.
 Pouring Metal Defects : The likely defects in this category are Mis-runs and  Cold shuts.
Mis- runs :  A mis-run is caused when the metal is unable to fill the mold cavity completely and
thus leaves unfilled cavities Long, thin sections are subject to this defect and should be
avoided in casting design. Cold shuts :  A cold shut is caused when two streams while meeting
in the mold cavity, do not fuse together properly thus forming a discontinuity in the casting.
 The mis-run and cold shut defects are caused either by a lower fluidity of the mold or when
the section thickness of the casting is very small.  Fluidity can be improved by changing the
composition of the metal and by increasing the pouring temperature of the metal.
 Mold Shift : The mold shift defect occurs when cope and drag or molding boxes have not been
properly aligned.
 gating ratio :
 The gating ratio refers to the proportion of the cross sectional areas between the sprue ,
runner ,and ingates and is generally denoted as sprue area : runner area : in gate area . 
common form of gating system is a : b : c  where , a = cross sectional area of sprue or down -
runner b = total cross-sectional area of runner c = total cross-sectional area of ingates
 In this process, the mold is rotated rapidly about its central axis as the metal is poured into it. 
Because of the centrifugal force, a continuous pressure will be acting on the metal as it solidifies.
 The slag, oxides and other inclusions being lighter get separated from the metal and segregate
towards the center.  This process is normally used for the making of hollow pipes, tubes,
hollow bushes, etc., which are axisymmetric with a concentric hole.  Since the metal is always
pushed outward because of the centrifugal force, no core needs to be used for making the
concentric hole.  The mold can be rotated about a vertical, horizontal or an inclined axis or
about its horizontal and vertical axes simultaneously.  The length and outside diameter are
fixed by the mold cavity dimensions while the inside diameter is determined by the amount of
molten metal poured into the mold.
 Centrifugal casting process can be classified as 1. True centrifugal casting 2. Semi-centrifugal
casting 3. Centrifuging
 True Centrifugal Casting :  The manufacturing process of centrifugal casting is a metal casting
technique that uses the forces generated by centripetal acceleration to distribute the molten
material in the mold.
Advantages:  Formation of hollow interiors in cylinders without cores.  Obtain castings of
better quality.  Fettling and cleaning costs are considerably reduced.  Less material required
for gate  Fine grained structure at the outer surface of the casting free of gas and shrinkage
cavities  The percentage of rejects is very low.
Disadvantages:  More segregation of alloy component during pouring under the forces of
rotation  Contamination of internal surface of castings with non-metallic inclusions 
Inaccurate internal diameter Applications :
 Typical parts made by this process are pipes, boilers, pressure vessels, flywheels, cylinder
liners and other parts that are axi-symmetric.  It is notably used to cast cylinder liners and
sleeve valves for piston engines, parts which could not be reliably manufactured otherwise.
In Shroyer's patent, a pattern was machined from a block of expanded polystyrene (EPS) and
supported by bonded sand during pouring.  This process is known as the full mold process.
 With the full mold process, the pattern is usually machined from an EPS block and is used to
make primarily large, one-of-a kind castings.  The full mold process was originally known as the
lost foam process. However, current patents have required that the generic term for the process
be full mold.  With Lost Foam Casting (LFC), the foam pattern is molded from polystyrene
beads. LFC is differentiated from full mold by the use of unbounded sand (LFC) as opposed to
bonded sand (full mold process).  Foam casting techniques have been referred to by a variety
of generic and proprietary names. Among these are lost foam, evaporative pattern casting,
cavity less casting, evaporative foam casting, and full mold casting.  In this method, the
pattern, complete with gates and risers, is prepared from expanded polystyrene. This pattern is
embedded in a no bake type of sand. While the pattern is inside the mold, molten metal is
poured through the sprue. The heat of the metal is sufficient to gasify the pattern and
progressive displacement of pattern material by the molten metal takes place.  The EPC
process is an economical method for producing complex, close-tolerance castings using an
expandable polystyrene pattern and unbonded sand.  Expandable polystyrene is a
thermoplastic material that can be molded into a variety of complex, rigid shapes.  The EPC
process involves attaching expandable polystyrene patterns to an expandable polystyrene gating
system and applying a refractory coating to the entire assembly. After the coating has dried, the
foam pattern assembly is positioned on loose dry sand in a vented flask.  In this process, a
pattern refers to the expandable polystyrene or foamed polystyrene part that is vaporized by the
molten metal.  A pattern is required for each casting
 The most important advantage of EPC process is that no cores are required.  No binders or other
additives are required for the sand, which is reusable.  Shakeout of the castings in unbonded sand is
simplified.  There are no parting lines or core fins.
 Vacuum Sealed Molding Process
 It is a process of making molds utilizing dry sand, plastic film and a physical means of binding
using negative pressure or vacuum  . V-process was developed in Japan in 1971. Since then it
has gained considerable importance due to its capability to produce dimensionally accurate and
smooth castings.  The basic difference between the V-process and other sand molding
processes is the manner in which sand is bounded to form the mold cavity.  In V-process
vacuum, of the order of 250 – 450 mm Hg, is imposed to bind the dry free flowing sand
encapsulated in between two plastic films.  The technique involves the formation of a mold
cavity by vacuum forming of a plastic film over the pattern, backed by unbounded sand, which is
compacted by vibration and held rigidly in place by applying vacuum.  When the metal is
poured into the molds, the plastic film first melts and then gets sucked just inside the sand voids
due to imposed vacuum where it condenses and forms a shell-like layer.  The vacuum must be
maintained until the metal solidifies, after which the vacuum is released allowing the sand to
drop away leaving a casting with a smooth surface.  No shakeout equipment is required and
the same sand can be cooled and reused without further treatment
Advantages :
 Exceptionally Good Dimensional Accuracy  Good Surface Finish  Longer Pattern Life
 Consistent Reproducibility  Low Cleaning / Finishing Cost
 Melting Techniques  Electric Arc Furnaces - This is the principal type of furnace used in the
steelmaking process. The constituents of the required alloy are loaded into the furnace, where
carbon electrodes strike an arc on to the charge during the melt down phase. The furnace can
also be used to hold the molten metal while it is being refined. The molten metal is removed
from the furnace by tilting it and pouring the metal into one or more ladles for the casting
operation.  Induction Furnaces - A water cooled copper coil carrying alternating current
produces a magnetic field, which in turn induces eddy currents in the charge. These eddy
currents heat and eventually melt the metal. A second magnetic field is generated by the
induced current in the charge. The opposed magnetic fields result in a mechanical force, which
stirs the molten metal. The benefits of this stirring include the production of a thermally and
chemically homogeneous melt and excellent alloy and charge absorption.  Vacuum induction
Melting - Induction melting can be performed within a vacuum if exotic, highly reactive and high
purity metals are being melted. It has another of additional advantages, including low losses of
alloying elements due to oxidation, achievement of close compositional tolerances and removal
of dissolved gases.  Reverberatory or Hearth Furnaces - use a fuel source (gas, coke, etc.) to
heat the entire furnace with the heat radiating from the walls and ceiling used to melt the
charge, although systems whereby roof and ceiling burners are aimed directly at the metal
surface are now more common.The molten metal is removed from the furnace through a tap
hole, or through a pouring spout it the case of tilting reverberatory furnaces.  Crucible
Furnaces -The crucible furnace is very versatile and flexible. Crucibles are vessels made out of
refractory material, steel of cast iron, that are heated inside a furnace such that the charge
doesn't come into contact with the flame and flue gases . The charge is heated by heat
conducted through the crucible walls. Molten metal can either be dipped out with hand ladles,
poured directly from a removable crucible,or poured out of a tilting furnace containing the crucible.
 Cupolas - In its simplest form, a cupola is a cylindrical shaft that burns coke with the heat
intensified by the blowing of air through a series of nozzles, or tuyeres. The charge is put into
the furnace through a charge door at the top of the cupola, along with replacement coke. The
metal is melted by the hot gases from the coke combustion, and the molten metal collects in a
well at the base of the cupola. This metal is either continuously of intermittently tapped off
through a tap hole.  Vacuum Arc Skull Melting and Casting - All operations take place within a
vacuum tight chamber. A titanium or titanium alloy electrode is lowered into a water cooled
copper crucible. An arc is struck between the electrode and the crucible, and since the crucible
is water cooled, a solidified titanium skull forms on the crucible surface. This avoids direct
contact between the melt and the crucible. When the required amount of liquid titanium is held
in the crucible, it is poured into the casting mould, also within the vacuum chamber.
Advantages of Investment casting :
 Many Intricate forms with undercuts can be cast.  A very smooth surface is obtained with no
parting line.  Dimensional accuracy is good.  Certain un-machinable parts can be cast to
preplanned shape.  It may be used to replace die-casting where short runs are involved.
Disadvantages of Investment casting :
 This process is expensive, is usually limited to small casting, and presents some difficulties
where cores are involved.  Holes cannot be smaller than 1/16 in. (1.6mm) and should be no
deeper than about 1.5 times the diameter.  Investment castings require very long production-
cycle times versus other casting processes.  This process is practically infeasible for high-volume
manufacturing, due to its high cost and long cycle times.  Many of the advantages of the
investment casting process can be achieved through other casting techniques if principles of
thermal design and control are applied appropriately to existing processes that do not involve
the shortcomings of investment castings.
 Melting practice for aluminium :
 Casting is a fast way to produce the desired shape. Three steps are involved in a casting
process: 1) heating metal till it becomes molten 2) pouring molten metal into a mould
3) allowing the metal to cool and solidify in the shape of the mould.  Casting is used in
the automobile industry to produce engine blocks or cylinder heads. Metal casting is vital to our
economy and security. Different metals are cast by many different processes for different
applications. Cast metal products and processes offer advantages unavailable from products
made by other metal forming and fabricating techniques. Castings are used in areas like
transportation, aerospace, defense, mining, construction ,maritime, fluid power, & domestic
household. Some cast components include: engine blocks, suspension parts for automobiles &
fluid flow components like valves, pumps, pipes, and fittings. To cut the emissions there is a
need to improve the fuel efficiency and make the vehicle lighter in weight.  Non ferrous metal
like aluminium is lighter than steel and has density one third of that of steel  Aluminum and
aluminum alloys are lightweight with good corrosion resistance, ductility and strength. 
Aluminium castings are more expensive than ferrous based castings. The greater use of
aluminum can decrease vehicle weight, improve its performance and reduce fuel costs.  Pure
aluminium possesses relatively poor casting features and for this reason castings are prepared
from aluminium alloys.  The main alloying elements are silicon, copper, magnesium, zinc, etc.
Aluminium silicon alloys have good casting and corrosion resistance properties. The fluidity
increases with silicon addition.  The addition of copper to aluminium increases its strength and
hardness. The aluminium copper alloys are heat treatable and possess good machinability.
Melting Details :  The process of melting consists of - A crucible filled with metal charge is
placed in a furnace and the metal is allowed to melt. The molten metal is removed from the
furnace and poured into a preheated mould.
Sand mould or metallic mould can be used for collecting the molten metal. Aluminium alloys can
be melted in direct or indirect fuel fired furnaces or in electrically heated furnaces like - crucible
furnaces, reverberatory furnaces, pot furnaces, induction furnaces.
 A crucible is like a vessel which is used to hold the molten metal in a furnace. The crucible
used is of clay graphite or silicon carbide. Silicon carbide crucible is more popular in industry
because of its higher strength and higher heat conductivity. Clay graphite crucible is cheaper
than silicon carbide crucible and is used in small foundries and educational institutes. A crucible
should withstand the high temperatures of melting and the crucible material must have a higher
melting point than that of the metal being melted. The crucibles are used for melting nonferrous
metals like zinc, aluminum, brass / bronze, etc.  Electrical heating furnaces offers good melt
quality and absence of products of combustion. They have heating elements in the form of coils
or strips. These furnaces are insulated with ceramic fiber and are of stationary or tilt types. The
coreless induction furnaces are popular and are used in small foundries to the large foundries.
Low to medium frequency induction coils transfer energy directly into the melt. Low and high
frequency induction furnaces are used for the melting of nonferrous metals
The aluminium/alloy scrap to be melted should be clean. The scrap should be preheated to
remove any moisture.  A fine grained aluminium alloy has better strength and this is done by
inoculating the melt with elements which form insoluble compound particles ,which will help to
increase the rate of nucleation. Many types of grain refiners and fluxes are available in the
market.  Preheated aluminium charge is added in the crucible. Once this scrap melts the
remaining charge is added in the melt carefully. The fresh charge should be preheated and
added carefully. If any moisture is present on the charge a steam explosion can occur.  Grain
refinement in aluminium alloys can be refined by adding boron, titanium to the melt. 
Aluminium/alloys can be cast in metallic moulds or sand moulds.
 Ellingham diagrams are a particular graphical form of the principle that the thermodynamic feasibility of a
reaction depends on the sign of ΔG, the Gibbs free energy change, which is equal to ΔH − TΔS, where ΔH is
the enthalpy change and ΔS is the entropy change.
 The Ellingham diagram plots the Gibbs free energy change (ΔG) for each oxidation reaction as a function of
temperature.
 For comparison of different reactions, all values of ΔG refer to the reaction of the same quantity of oxygen,
chosen as one mole O (1⁄2 mol O2) by some authors and one mole O2 by others.
 The diagram at right refers to 1 mole O, so that for example the line marked Cr2O3 shows ΔG for the
reaction 2/3 Cr(s) + 1⁄2 O2(g) → 1⁄3 Cr2O3(s), which is 1⁄3 of the molar Gibbs energy of formation ΔGf°(Cr2O3, s).

 In the temperature ranges commonly used, the metal and the oxide are in a condensed state (liquid or
solid), and oxygen is a gas with a much larger molar entropy.
 For the oxidation of each metal, the dominant contribution to the entropy change (ΔS) is the removal of 1⁄2
mol O2, so that ΔS is negative and roughly equal for all metals.
 The slope of the plots dΔG/dT = − ΔS is therefore positive for all metals, with ΔG always becoming more
negative with lower temperature, and the lines for all the metal oxides are approximately parallel. Since
these reactions are exothermic, they always become feasible at lower temperatures. At a sufficiently high
temperature, the sign of ΔG may invert (becoming positive) and the oxide can spontaneously reduce to the
metal, as shown for Ag and Cu.
 For oxidation of carbon, the red line is for the formation of CO: C(s) + 1⁄2 O2(g) → CO(g) with an increase in
the number of moles of gas, leading to a positive ΔS and a negative slope. The blue line for the formation of
CO2 is approximately horizontal, since the reaction C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g) leaves the number of moles of gas
unchanged so that ΔS is small.
 Ceramic Shell Investment Casting Process :
 The basic difference in investment casting is that in the investment casting the wax pattern is
immersed in a refractory aggregate before dewaxing whereas, in ceramic shell investment
casting a ceramic shell is built around a tree assembly by repeatedly dipping a pattern into a
slurry (refractory material such as zircon with binder).
 After each dipping and stuccoing is completed, the assembly is allowed to thoroughly dry
before the next coating is applied. Thus, a shell is built up around the assembly. The thickness of
this shell is dependent on the size of the castings and temperature of the metal to be poured.
 After the ceramic shell is completed, the entire assembly is placed into an autoclave or flash
fire furnace at a high temperature. The shell is heated to about 982 o C to burn out any residual
wax and to develop a high-temperature bond in the shell.
 The shell molds can then be stored for future use or molten metal can be poured into them
immediately. If the shell molds are stored, they have to be preheated before molten metal is
poured into them.
Advantages
 Excellent surface finish  Tight dimensional tolerances  machining can be reduced or
completely eliminated
 Application :
 Investment casting is used with almost any castable metal, however aluminium alloys, copper
alloys, and steel are the most common.  In industrial usage the size limits are 3 g to about 5 kg
. The cross-sectional limits are 0.6 mm (0.024 in) to 75 mm (3.0 in). Typical tolerances are 0.1
mm for the first 25 mm (0.005 in for the first inch) and 0.02 mm for the each additional
centimeter (0.002 in for each additional inch). A standard surface finish is 1.3–4 micrometres
(50–125 μin) RMS