Pouring of Metal

the process whereby molten metal is introduced into molds, where the metal
then crystallizes to form ingots. Distinguished from casting, in which the
metal hardens to give shaped castings, pouring is an important step in the
technological cycle for the production of metal because it is during the
pouring and crystallization of the ingot that many of the metal’s physic
mechanical properties are formed. The quantity, as well as the quality, of
.acceptable ingots depends on the organization of the pouring process

Molten metal from the smelting furnace is usually poured into a ladle, from
which the metal is then poured from the lip at the top of the ladle when the
ladle is of small capacity. When the ladle is larger, the metal is poured
through a refractory nozzle at the bottom of the ladle. The nozzle can be
closed from inside the ladle by a refractory stopper. Devices without stoppers
are also widely used. Here, the ladle’s nozzle is closed from the outside by a
refractory plate. The plate, which has an orifice, can be moved so that the
.orifice coincides with the nozzle, thus allowing the metal to flow out

In the steel industry, molten steel is poured from a ladle into molds, or a
process of continuous steel casting is used. The metal can be poured into the
mold either from the top of the mold or from the bottom through a
connecting channel. In the first case, the steel is poured from the ladle
directly into the mold (Figure 1, a). After the mold is filled, the ladle opening
is closed and the ladle is moved by crane to the next mold, where the process
is repeated. In bottom pouring, several molds (from two to 60) can be filled
with steel simultaneously. Here, the molds are mounted on a stool having
channels lined with refractory brick. The steel from the ladle descends
through the fountain into the channels of the stool and then enters the mold
from the bottom (Figure 1, b). The pouring method used depends on such
.factors as the steel’s grade and weight and the intended use of the ingots
Figure 1. Pouring of metal through (a) top-pouring and (b) bottom-pouring processes; (1) ladle with metal, (2) mold, (3)
stool, and (4) fountain

In order to improve the quality, steel is sometimes subjected to various types

of treatment during the pouring process, for example, treatment with
synthetic slags. In this case, slag of known composition is charged into the
ladle after being smelted in a special furnace. When metal from the smelting
furnace also enters the ladle, the slag and metal mix and reactions occur at a
significantly higher rate than in a furnace. The result is a lowering of the
content of sulfur, oxygen, and nonmetallic inclusions. Vacuum treatment is
also an efficient method for improving the quality of steel during the pouring
.process

Pouring of nonferrous metals and alloys can be carried out, either directly
from smelting furnaces or through ladles into molds, or ingot stools, as well
as by means of continuous casting machines. Special pouring machines are
widely used for pouring cast iron, nonferrous metals, and ferroalloys

Solidification of Metals
The production of most metal parts, including articles produced by powder-
metallurgy techniques, involves solidification. Castings obviously entail
solidification; forgings and wrought products are also castings that have
been hot worked, and their behavior in many cases can be traced back to the
method of solidification. In particular, the solidification rate of alloys is an
extremely important processing variable. The solidification rate relates
directly to the coarseness—or fineness—of dendritic structures and hence
controls the spacing and distribution of microsegregates, such as coring,
second phases, and inclusions. Thermal gradients during freezing are also of
great significance, being related to the formation of macrosegregation and
porosity in alloys. For these metallurgical reasons and from a process
engineering viewpoint, solidification heat transfer should be recognized as an
important topic

Shrinkage in Casting: Causes and Solutions

Fabrication shops and foundries attempt to create metal castings that closely
adhere to design specifications with as few deviations as possible. However,
avoiding defects in a product run can be a challenging task since most metals
shrink to some degree as they cool. When a component undergoes shrinkage, it
can seriously undermine the integrity of the entire device and may eventually
break under stress. To help reduce or eliminate the chances of faulty parts
entering the marketplace, many facilities employ inspection equipment to detect
both superficial and internal imperfections. Despite these efforts, metal casting
shrinkage remains an important concern for many manufacturers.
Shrinkage Porosity
There are two main types of porosity problems in the metalworking industry:
shrinkage porosity and gas porosity. Shrinkage is by far the most common type
and can usually be detected on the surface of a cast part by what appear to be
small holes or cracks. These holes may seem round, but are actually angular in
shape and tend to form branching internal fractures. Thick multi-angled parts are
most susceptible to such shrinkage, which occurs as the metal cools and
solidifies in a non-uniform pattern.

Causes of Shrinkage and Types of Casting Shrinkage

There are four types of shrinkage that can occur in metal castings: cavity,
sponge, filamentary, and dendritic shrinkage.
Cavity shrinkage: This defect occurs when two different sources of molten
material are joined to create a common front while solidification is already taking
place. A lack of additional feed material to fill in the accumulating gaps can further
exacerbate the cavity shrinkage problem.

Sponge shrinkage: This usually arises in the thicker mid-section of the casting
product and causes a thin lattice texture similar to filament or dendrites to
develop.

Filamentary shrinkage: This results in a network of continuous cracks of various

dimensions and densities, usually under a thick section of the material. It can be
difficult to detect, and the fracture lines tend to be interconnected.

Dendritic shrinkage: Dendritic fractures are narrow, randomly distributed lines or

cavities that are often unconnected. They are typically thinner and less dense
than filamentary cracks.

How Temperature Affects Casting Shrinkage

To reduce the potential for metal casting shrinkage, it is helpful to work
within a delineated temperature range. Metal should be heated to achieve
appropriate molten characteristics, but without reaching its full liquid state. This
usually entails heating the material to slightly above its flow point, but well below
its melting point. Preventing overheating can be just as important to effective
casting as cultivating a molten flow.

It is also useful to note that castings can cool at a rate of up to 100 degrees
per minute once molten pouring is complete. Since shrinkage can be caused by
working material while solidification is under way, it is important to have
equipment prepared to treat the workpiece before it solidifies.

Avoiding Common Shrinkage Defects in Casting Process

The most common causes of shrinkage are related to the die casting sprue,
which is the passage through which molten metal is poured into a mold. In some
areas, such as the heavy sections of the mold, the metal takes longer to contract
and solidify, which reduces feed material availability and increases the likelihood
of shrinkage, especially if the sprue is too small for the volume of flow. A properly
sized sprue attached directly to the heavy section can fill the shrinkage cavity
and provide the feed material necessary to counteract shrinkage as cooling
occurs. In addition, using a rounded, rather than a flat or square, gate on the
sprue can further reduce the risk of forming defects.
Using a narrow or tapered sprue can result in the molten metal being sprayed
rather than poured into the cavity. When this happens, certain sections of the
workpiece begin to solidify before the entire mold is filled. Molten flow into the
cavity should be as uniform as possible, and a larger central sprue or a multiple-
sprue arrangement can help achieve the even supply of material
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