Durability of Concrete

Long Term Performance

Construction Materials
M1K221884 & M1K225125
Durability of Concrete
Long Term Performance

♦ Freeze/Thaw Attack

♦ Sulphate Attack :
Internal: DEF
External: Ettringite
Thaumasite

♦ Carbonation
Durability of Concrete – why so important ?

The Roman Colosseum, still standing after

nearly 2000 years

Corrosion damage in an elevated highway

structure exposed to de-icing salts - spalling
of the concrete cover, leaving the rebar
exposed.
Durability of Concrete – why so important ?

The Roman Colosseum

Elevated highway structure

High performance material requirements:

 Increased structural capacity –

 STRENGTH
 - relatively easy to achieve
High performance material requirements:

 Increased structural capacity –

 STRENGTH
 - relatively easy to achieve

A
N
D

 Resistance to environmental
conditions –
 DURABILITY
 - still a challenge
Durability – what it means?

Ability to maintain:
◉ structural integrity,
◉ protective capacity
◉ aesthetic qualities

over a prolonged period of time

VIP !!!
Very
Important
Point
Durability – what it means?

Deteriorative effects:

- wetting & drying,

- freezing & thawing,
- heating,
- erosion,
- abrasion,
- chemical attack etc.
Effect of Morphology on Durability

 Morphology and internal structure is

responsible for concrete performance

 Degree of hydration

 Increase of surface area of solid phase

 Limitation of empty spaces
 Restriction of water flow

 Initial water content plays important

role

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 Physical Durability
Freezing/Thawing Resistance
 VIP !!!
Freezing/Thawing Resistance

 Key Factors: Presence of water

Low temperature

http://www.steps-plus.com/freeze-
thaw-cycles-concrete-damage/
 Freezing & Thawing Cycle

Concrete Saturated
with Water
Freezing Temperature

Phase
Transition
Water - Ice

Internal expansion
of ice 9-10%
causing cracking

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 Freezing & Thawing Cycle

Concrete Saturated
with Water
Freezing Temperature

Phase
Transition
Water - Ice

Internal expansion Vol ice > Vol water

of ice 9-10% extra space
causing cracking created by cracks

Temperature Phase
increase Transition
- Thawing Ice - Water
13
 Freezing & Thawing Cycle VIP !!!

Concrete Saturated
with Water
Freezing Temperature

Phase More external

Transition water can enter
Water - Ice concrete

Internal expansion Vol ice > Vol water

of ice 9-10% extra space
causing cracking created by cracks

Temperature Phase
increase Transition
- Thawing Ice - Water
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 Mitigating Methods
- two main solutions

High Strength Concrete

 Concrete may be able to resist

pressure without cracking due to
sufficiently high strength

 “No initial cracking = No damage”

15
 VIP !!!
Mitigating Methods
- two main solutions

High Strength Concrete Air Entrained Concrete

4-6% extra air

 Concrete may be able to resist  Air bubbles acting as reservoirs for

pressure without cracking due to ice expansion
sufficiently high strength
 Bubbles do not fill with water –
 “No initial cracking = No damage” high contact angle of internal
surface (non-wetting properties)

 Bubbles reduce internal pressure

and prevent cracking

 Loss in Strength: 1% air = 5% loss

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 Air
bubbles

Air entrained
samples of mortar
after 28 days of
curing

17
 Freeze - Thaw Deterioration
Macro- & microscopic appearance

 Deterioration of concrete by F/T actions may be difficult to diagnose

 Other types of deterioration mechanisms such as ASR often go hand

in hand with F/T.

 Often is may be difficult to evaluate which mechanism caused the

initial damage.
 Freeze - Thaw Deterioration
Typical Signs

 Spalling and scaling of the surface

 Large chunks (cm size) are coming off 


 Exposure of aggregate 

 Exposed aggregate are usually un-
cracked

 Surface parallel cracking

 Gaps around aggregate

SULPHATE ATTACK VIP !!!
Very
Important
Point
Internal – Delayed Ettringite Formation (DEF)

External - Ettringite
- Thaumasite attack
 Internal Sulphate Attack
Delayed Ettringite Formation (DEF)

 Delayed ettringite formation (DEF) is a form

of internal sulphate attack

 Factors affecting DEF:

 concrete composition,
 curing conditions and
 exposure conditions

 DEF is a result of improper heat curing

of concrete where the normal ettringite
formation is suppressed
 VIP !!!
DEF in Concrete

 The sulphate concentration in the pore liquid is high

for an unusually long period of time in the hardened
concrete

 Eventually, the sulphate reacts with calcium- and

aluminium phases of cement paste
 And cement paste expands - ettringite formation

 As a result empty cracks (gaps) form around

aggregates

 Cracks may remain empty or later be partly or even

completely filled with ettringite
EXTERNAL SULPHATE ATTACK

Ettringite form

Thaumasite form
 ETTRINGITE VIP !!!
FORM OF SULPHATE ATTACK

C3A (10%) + H2O + GYPSUM



INSOLUBLE SULPHOALUMINATE
“Ettringite” Immature concrete

CALCIUM ALUMINATE HYDRATES

Mature concrete

SULPHATE    ATTACK
ETTRINGITE
EXPANSIVE CALCIUM SULPHO-ALUMINATE
 ETTRINGITE
VIP !!!
FORM OF SULPHATE ATTACK

EFFECT OF ETTRINGITE
EXPANSIVE CALCIUM SULPHO-ALUMINATE

Disrupture of Structure of Cement Exposure to More Rapid Attacks

Matrix Cracks permit further sulphate
Crumbling of Concrete ingress
VIP !!!
THAUMASITE
FORM OF SULPHATE ATTACK

AFFECTS CALCIUM SILICATE HYDRATES - CSH

C2S + H2O  CSH + LIME
C3S + H2O  CSH + LIME

CSH
SULPHATES - GROUND WATER
ATTACK    CARBONATES - LIMESTONE

SOFT
TRANSLUCENT CRYSTALS
CaSiO3.CaCO3.CaSO4.15H2

THAUMASITE
VIP !!!
THAUMASITE
FORM OF SULPHATE ATTACK

Originally it was believed that the calcium carbonate had to be present in a finely
divided form (dust from limestone aggregate or type of limestone filler)

Recent research shown that even large limestone aggregate particles can trigger
thaumasite attack.

Note: 40% of all UK structural concrete contains limestone aggregate.

Advanced state of Columnar shape forms of

thaumasite formation thaumasite

Very dangerous form of attack as it often affects foundations !

Difficult to identify problem before it is too late
THAUMASITE. FORM OF SULPHATE ATTACK

http://materconstrucc.revistas.csic.es/index.php/materconstrucc

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 VIP !!!
External Sulphate Attack
 Microscopic appearance

 The microscopic appearance of concrete suffering

from external sulphate attack appears to be quite
variable.

 Some diagnostic features include:

 Surface parallel cracks

 Presence of Gypsum and Ettringite
 Depletion of Calcium Hydroxide
 Decalcification of C-S-H
Protection against Sulphate Attack

 Change the nature of concrete

 Change the nature of environment

 Isolate concrete from environment

 Avoid limestone aggregate

(thaumasite form)

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 Protection against Sulphate Attack
 Change the nature of concrete
 - possible on design stage only

 Low Concentration of Sulphates

 → low w/c ratio ensures strong concrete being able to resist
initial cracking

 High Concentration of Suphates

 → change from OPC to one of cements more resistant to
sulphates (LHPC, PBFC, LHPBFC,SRPC)

 Polymer modified concrete

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 Protection against Sulphate Attack

 Change the nature of the Environment

 Modification of environment to reduce sulphate content

(example: sulphates produced by bacteria in sewage)

 Modification of water table, so concrete is not exposed

to ground water containing sulphates

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 Protection against Sulphate Attack

 Isolate the concrete from the environment

 Insulating membranes and coatings

 Avoid limestone aggregate (thaumasite form)

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 VIP !!!
Carbonation

The most common source of acidic attack is by acidic gases in the

atmosphere, particularly Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

Carbon Dioxide + Lime → Calcium Carbonate + Water

CO2 + Ca(OH)2 → CaCO3 + H2 O

Calcium Carbonate has smaller volume than Calcium Hydroxide (Lime); small
shrinkage takes place
 VIP !!!
Rate of Carbonation

The rate of carbonation is usually very slow since the

Calcium Carbonate formed acts as a skin to reduce
further ‘carbonation’

Rate of Carbonation:
1. Permeability
2. Carbon Dioxide content in atmosphere
3. Temperature
4. Moisture

Increase in factors 1-3 increase rate of Carbonation !!!

35
 VIP !!!
Carbonation & Moisture

Dry concrete reacts very slowly

Fully saturated does not allow easy access to Carbon Dioxide

WHY ?
 Carbonation process requires presence of water because CO2
dissolves in water forming H2CO3
 If concrete is too dry (RH <40%) CO2 cannot dissolve and no
carbonation occurs
 If concrete is too wet (RH>90%) CO2 cannot enter concrete and
concrete cannot carbonate

 Optimal conditions for carbonation occur at a RH of 50%

 (Range 40-90%)
 Carbonation & Corrosion

 Normal carbonation results in a decrease of the porosity making

the carbonated paste stronger.

 Carbonation is an advantage in non-reinforced concrete !!!

 Carbonation is a disadvantage in reinforced concrete, as pH of
carbonated concrete drops to about 7
 This is pH value below the passivation threshold of steel so corrosion can take
place

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 Carbonation

Fully carbonated paste in the concrete surface.

Carbonated paste appears orange-brown in
crossed polarized light.

Note: for good quality concrete that is not cracked, the depth of
carbonation does not usually exceed 10-20mm even after many years

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 VIP !!!
Carbonation
 Carbonation may be recognized in the field
by the presence of a discoloured zone in
the surface of the concrete.

 The colour may vary from light grey and

difficult to recognize to strong orange and
easy to recognize.

 Carbonation can be visualized by using

phenolphthalein. 
 VIP !!!
Carbonation
 In the optical microscope,
carbonation is recognized by:
 presence of calcite crystals
 absence of calcium hydroxide
 ettringite and un-hydrated
cement grains

 Porosity is unchanged or lower in

the carbonated zone

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 Tutorial Questions:
 1. Explain the mechanism of deterioration caused by alternate freezing and
thawing cycles. Why the number of F/T cycles plays such an important role in
deterioration process?
 2. Explain the effect of air entrainment on the concrete resistance to freezing and
thawing. What is the alternative to air entrainment in concrete frost protection?
 3. What is DEF and what is causing it?
 4. Explain the mechanism of deterioration of concrete elements subjected to
sulphate ions.
 5. Explain the difference between Ettringite and Thaumasite form of sulphate
attack.
 6. Identify the conditions which can trigger formation of Thaumasite in concrete
foundations.
 7. Discuss main factors affecting the rate of carbonation. How do they affect the
rate?
 8. Describe the visible signs of concrete surface carbonation