Fundamentals of Electricity

Fundamentals Of Electricity
Simple DC
Series
Circuit,
Rt = R1+R2+R3
Simple DC
Parallel
Circuit,
Rt = (R1.R2.R3 )
/(R2.R1+R3.R2+R1 .R3)
1
Electrical Engineering Fundamentals for Non-EEs; © B. Rauf 01/13/23
Simple AC
Series
Circuit,
Simple AC
Parallel
Circuit,
2
Three Phase
(AC)
Transformer
Configurations
Note:
a = Turns Ratio
= Np/Ns
3
Impedance :
 Definition : Impedance is the current
resisting and impeding characteristic of
load or conductor in an AC Circuit.
 Symbol for Impedance: Z

Z = R + jXl - jXc
Where, jXl = Zl and, -jXc = Zc
 Unit for Impedance: Ohms or s.

4
Ohms Law:
 Mathematical Statement of the Ohm’s
Law:
V = I R for DC circuits
V = I Z for AC Circuits
Note: BOLD letters, in general, represent
Vectoral quantities
5
Impedance
Calculation:
6
Power :
 Definition: Power is defined as the capacity of a system
to perform work or Rate of work performed by a system.
 Symbols and Types of Power:
 Pdc= V.I , in watts. Note: Pdc= Preal
Papparent = S = Apparent Power (kVA) or Total AC Power
Preal = P = Real Power Comp. of Apparent Power, in kW
Preactive = Q = Reactive Comp. of App. Power in kVAR
  Pappent = (Preal)2 + (Preactive)2 orS = (P)2 +(Q)2
 Magnitude of Total (3  ) Power = S= 3. VL.IL
7
Power Factor :
 Definition: Power Factor is defined as the Ratio of
Real Power (kW) to Apparent Power (kVA). It is
also defined as the quantity cos( - ).
PF = P/S or
PF = cos( - ),
 where  is the angle of voltage V, where V = VRMS  
  is the angle of current i = I RMS  
Note: Detailed discussion on the topic of Power

Factor is covered under the Power Factor segment
of this seminar.
8
Voltage Regulation:
Definition: Real voltage sources are unable

to hold the voltage constant as they assume
a significant amount of load (Resistance or
Impedance). This results in the difference
between Vno load and Vfull load.
The formula for Voltage Regulation is as
follows:
Voltage Reg. = (Vno load - Vfull load)/ Vfull load x 100%
9
Service Factor of a Motor:
Definition: Service factor of a motor

is the ratio of safe to standard (nameplate)
loads. Service factor is expressed in
decimal. The formula for Service Factor is
as follows:
Service Factor = Safe Load / Nameplate Load
10
Classifications of Motors:
 Motor categorization by NEMA, National Electrical
Manufacturers Association:
 Speed:
 Constant Speed
 Adjustable Speed
 Multispeed
 Varying Speed
 Service Classification:
 General
 Definite
 Special Purpose
 Varying Speed
11
Classifications of Motors, contd.:
Motor Class is determined by the maximum

allowable operating temperature of the motor,
which is dependant on the type/grade of
insulation used in the motor.
 Class A: 105 C
 Class B: 130 C
 Class F: 155 C
 Class H: 180 C
12
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL):
Algebraic sum of voltage drops around any

closed path, within a circuit, is equal to
the sum of voltages presented by all of
the voltage sources. The mathematical
representation of KVL is as follows:
 VDrops =  VSource
13
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL):
Total current flowing into a node is equal

to the total current that flows out of the
node. The mathematical representation of
KCL is as follows:
 iin =  iout
14
Motor Speed Calculation:
 Given:
Number of Poles = P = 4
Frequency of AC Power Supply to the Motor, in Hertz = f = 60 Hz
Speed, in RPM = S = ?
– Formula: S x P = 120 x f
• S = (120 x f ) / P
• S = (120 x 60) / 4 = 1800 RPM
15
Motor Slip:
Slip is usually expressed in percent and can be computed as follows:
Percent slip = (Synchronous speed - Actual speed ) x 100

Synchronous Speed
 Induction motors are made with slip ranging from less than 5% up to
20%.
 A motor with a slip of 5% or less is known as a normal-slip motor. A
normal-slip motor is sometimes referred to as a 'constant speed' motor
because the speed changes very little from no-load to full-load
conditions. A common four-pole motor with a synchronous speed of
1,800 rpm may have a no-load speed of 1,795 rpm and a full-load speed
of 1,750 rpm. The rate-of-change of slip is approximately linear from
10% to 110% load, when all other factors such as temperature and
voltage are held constant. Motors with slip over 5% are used for hard to
start applications.
The direction of rotation of a polyphase ac induction motor depends on the
connection of the stator leads to the power lines. Interchanging any two
input leads reverses rotation.
16
Motor Torque, Power and Horsepower:
 Torque is equivalent to the amount of work performed.

Torque can be considered as turning effort. For example,
suppose a wheel with a crank arm one-foot long takes a
force of one pound to turn at steady rate. The torque
required would be one pound times one foot or one foot-
pound.
 Horsepower, i .e. Power, is defined as the rate at which

work is performed or rate at which torque is produced.
 In the wheel cranking example above, if one were to crank

the wheel twice as fast, the torque remains the same but
the power and horsepower delivered would double,
regardless of how fast the crank is turned, as long as the
crank is turned at a steady speed.
17
Motor Torque and Horsepower,
contd.:
 Power, Horsepower and Torque Relationship:
Torque(ft-lbf) = 5250 x P (horsepower)

Speed (rpm)
Torque(N-m) = 9549 x P (kW)
Speed (rpm)
18
Fundamentals Of Electricity in Industrial and Commercial Environment
Motor Power – Line Current Calculation:
 Motor Nameplate Information:

Power rating, in HP (Horse Power) = P = 10 HP
Voltage Rating = 480 VAC
No. of Phases = 3; also stated as 3 
Power Factor = PF = 0.8
Efficiency = Eff. = 0.9
Magnitude of Line Current = FLA, Full Load Current =  I  = I = ?
Note: 1 HP = 746 Watts = 746 W = 0.746 kW
Formula: I = Power in Watts / PF / Eff./ (3 x VL)

• I = 10HP x 746 W/HP/0.8/0.9/(3 x480VAC)
• I = 12.46 Amps
19
Miscellaneous:
 Demand: This term means the highest average

power (kW) in a given interval, or demand interval.
Electric utilities charge commercial and industrial
customers for the peak demand set each month.
 Peak demand: This is the maximum demand
used in any demand interval for a given month.
 Load factor: The load factor is the ratio of
average power to peak demand. Utility customers
are sometimes penalized for low load factor that
can occur when large amounts of power are used
in short periods of time, instead of at a steady rate
for long periods of time.
20
Electronics
Semiconductor
Diode:
21
Electronics
Outputs From Simple

Diode Circuits:
22
Electronics Outputs From Simple Diode Circuits:
Special Types of Diodes:
23
Electronics
Bipolar Junction
Transistors:
Bipolar Junction Transistor

Operating Regions
24
Standards
 NEMA: National Electrical Manufacturers
Association; www.nema.org
– NEMA, created in the fall of 1926 by the merger of the Electric Power
Club and the Associated Manufacturers of Electrical Supplies, provides
a forum for the standardization of electrical equipment, enabling
consumers to select from a range of safe, effective, and compatible
electrical products.
 ANSI: American National Standards Institute;
www.ansi.org
– The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) is a private,
non-profit organization that administers and coordinates the U.S.
voluntary standardization and conformity assessment system
 IEC: International Electrotechnical Commission.
– IEC is the authoritative worldwide body responsible for developing
consensus global standards in the electrotechnical field
25
Standards
 IEEE: Institute of Electrical and Electronic
Engineers; www.ieee.org
– The IEEE is a non-profit, technical professional association
for Electrical and Electronics Engineers.
26
Power Distribution Systems
Power Distribution Systems Consist of:
 MCC or Motor Control Centers
 Loop Switches
 Transformers
 Voltage Regulators
 Capacitor Banks
 Circuit Breakers
– OCB’s, Oil Circuit Breakers
– Air Circuit Breakers
 Disconnect Switches
 Fuses
 Starters and Combination Starters
 Power Monitoring and Control Systems
27
Power Factor Correction
Bobby Rauf ©
1
Electrical Engineering Fundamentals for Non-EE's; © B. Rauf 01/13/23
Topics
 Power Factor, Definition, Concept
and Formulas
 Power Factor Correction /
Improvement Example
 Additional Comments /
Discussion on Power Factor
 Power Factor and Loss
Calculation Example
2
Power Factor, Definition, Concept and

Formula:
 Definition: Power Factor is defined as the Ratio of

Real Power (kW) to Apparent Power (kVA). It is also
defined as the quantity cos( - ).
PF = P/S or
PF = cos( - ),
 where  is the angle of voltage V, where V = VRMS  
  is the angle of current i = I RMS  
 % PF = (PF) x 100
3
I
Power Factor, contd.: Zc= Xc  -90=-j Xc
-
V
 Leading Power Factor:

 Power factor is said to be leading when,  the
angle of the current, exceeds , the angle of the
voltage.
In other words, ( - ) is negative.
Impedance, Zc, due to pure capacitance
reactance, Xc, has a negative angle. Or, Zc = Xc
 -90
4
Fundamentals Of Electricity Zl = Xl  +90=+j Xl V
Pf Angle
Power Factor, contd.: I
=-
 Lagging Power Factor:

 Power factor is said to be lagging when,  the angle
of the current, is less than , the angle of the voltage.
 In other words, ( - ) is positive.
 Impedance, Zl, due to pure inductive reactance, Xl,
has a positive angle. Or, Zl = Xl  90
 In Inductive Circuits, add Capacitance, or
Capacitive Reactance, Xc, to offset the Inductive
V 90 Deg.
Reactance, Xl, and to Increase the PF. I
V 
5
Power Factor, contd :
C = ( Q1 - Q2 )
2  f V2
Where,
C = Capacitance (F) required to reduce the
Reactive or Imaginary Power from Q1 to Q2
Q1 = Initial, higher Reactive Power, in VARs
Q2 = Improved, lower Reactive Power, in VARs
V = Voltage, in Volts
f = Frequency, in Hz
6

Fundamentals of Electricity

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Fundamentals Of Electricity

 Symbol for Impedance: Z

 Unit for Impedance: Ohms or s.

Note: Detailed discussion on the topic of Power

Definition: Real voltage sources are unable

Service Factor of a Motor:

Definition: Service factor of a motor

Classifications of Motors, contd.:

Motor Class is determined by the maximum

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL):

Algebraic sum of voltage drops around any

Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL):

Total current flowing into a node is equal

Motor Speed Calculation:

Percent slip = (Synchronous speed - Actual speed ) x 100

 Torque is equivalent to the amount of work performed.

 Horsepower, i .e. Power, is defined as the rate at which

 In the wheel cranking example above, if one were to crank

Torque(ft-lbf) = 5250 x P (horsepower)

Motor Power – Line Current Calculation:

 Motor Nameplate Information:

Formula: I = Power in Watts / PF / Eff./ (3 x VL)

 Demand: This term means the highest average

Outputs From Simple

Special Types of Diodes:

Bipolar Junction Transistor

Power Factor, Definition, Concept and

 Definition: Power Factor is defined as the Ratio of

 Leading Power Factor:

 Lagging Power Factor:

Reactance, Xl, and to Increase the PF. I

Power Factor, contd :

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