TOPIC 9 & 10

TOOLS TO IMPROVE
QUALITY AND QUALITY
DIAGNOSIS PROCEDURE :
STATISTICAL QUALITY
CONTROL

1
Topic 9.0 : Statistical Process
Control For Variables Data
1. Statistical Fundamentals
2. Process Control Charts / SPC
3. Some Control Chart Concepts for
Variables
4. Process Capability for Variables
5. Other Statistical Techniques in Quality
Management
BJMQ3013-Quality Management: Dr Che Azlan Taib
Topic 10.0 : Statistical Process
Control For Attributes Data
1. What is an Attribute
2. Generic Process for developing structure
Charts
3. Understanding Attributes Control Charts
4. Choosing the Right Attributes Chart

BJMQ3013-Quality Management: Dr Che Azlan Taib

 ‘Data are required to obtain the average
dimensions and the degree of dispersion (in
process) so that we can determine ….. Whether
the production process used for manufacturing
the lot was suitable, of if some action must be
taken. In other words, action can be taken on a
process on the basis of data gained from the
samples’.

KAORU ISHIKAWA

4
STATISTICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
1. What Is Statistical Thinking
Is a decision-making skill demonstrated by the
ability to draw conclusions based on data.
Statistical thinking is based on three concepts:
 All work occurs in a system of interconnected
processes.
 All processes have variation (the amount of
variation tends to be underestimated).
 Understanding variation and reducing variation are
important keys to success.

5
2. Why Do Statistics Sometimes Fall in the
Workplace?
Lack of knowledge about the tools.
General disdain for all things mathematical
creates a natural barrier to the use of statistics.

6
3. What Do We Mean by the Term Statistical
Quality Control?

7
4. Understanding Process Variation
 Processes involve variation. Some variation can be
managed and some cannot.
 If too much variation, the process not fit
correctly., product not function properly and firms
will, get bad reputation/image.
 TWO types of variation commonly occur:

1. Random variation
2. Non-random variation

8
Random Variation

 Is uncontrollable
 In centered around a mean and occurs with a
somewhat consistent amount of dispersion.
 The amount of random variation in a process
may be either large or small

9
Non-Random Variation

 The event may be shift in

a process mean or some
unexpected occurrence.

10
Process Stability

 Means that the variation we observe in the

process is random variation (common
csuse) and not nonrandom variation.
 To determine process stability, we use
process chart.
 Process charts are graphs designed to signal
process workers when nonrandom
variation is occurring in a process.

11
PROCESS CONTROL CHARTS / STATISTICAL
PROCESS CONTROL (SPC)
A methodology for monitoring a process to
identify special causes of variation and signal
the need to take corrective action when
appropriate
SPC relies on control charts

12
HISTOGRAMS VS. CONTROL CHARTS
Histograms do not take into account changes over
time.
Control charts can tell us when a process changes
CONTROL CHART APPLICATIONS

Establish state of statistical control

Monitor a process and signal when it goes out
of control
Determine process capability

14
Process capability calculations make little
sense if the process is not in statistical
control because the data are confounded by
special causes that do not represent the
inherent capability of the process.
QUALITY CONTROL
APPROACHES

Statistical process control (SPC)

• Monitors the production process to prevent
• poor quality

Acceptance sampling
• Inspects a random sample of the product
• to determine if a lot is acceptable

16
STATISTICAL PROCESS
CONTROL

Take periodic samples from a process

Plot the sample points on a control chart

Determine if the process is within limits

Correct the process before defects occur

17
SPC APPLIED TO SERVICES

Nature of defect is different in services

Service defect is a failure to meet customer requirements
Monitor times, customer satisfaction
Service Quality Examples

• Hospitals
– timeliness, responsiveness, accuracy
• Grocery Stores
– Check-out time, stocking, cleanliness
• Airlines
– luggage handling, waiting times, courtesy
• Fast food restaurants
– waiting times, food quality, cleanliness
 PROCESS CONTROL
CHART
Upper
control
limit

Process
average

Lower
control
limit

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Sample number

19
 CONSTRUCTING A CONTROL
CHART
Decide what to measure or count
Collect the sample data
Plot the samples on a control chart
Calculate and plot the control limits on the control chart
Determine if the data is in-control
If non-random variation is present, discard the data (fix the
problem) and recalculate the control limits
A Process Is In Control If

• No sample points are outside control limits

• Most points are near the process average
• About an equal # points are above & below the centerline
• Points appear randomly distributed

20
THE NORMAL
DISTRIBUTION

95 %
99.74 %

-3 -2 -1 = 0 1 2 3

Area under the curve = 1.0

© 1998 by Prentice-Hall Inc
Russell/Taylor Oper Mgt 2/e Ch 4 - 14
CONTROL CHART Z
VALUES

Smaller Z values make more

sensitive charts

Z = 3.00 is standard

Compromise between sensitivity

and errors
CONTROL CHARTS AND THE
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
UCL

+3
Mean

-3
LCL

23
TYPES OF DATA
Attribute data (p-charts, c-charts)
Product characteristics evaluated with a
discrete choice (Good/bad, yes/no, count)

Variable data (X-bar and R charts)

Product characteristics that can be
measured (Length, size, weight, height, time, velocity)

24
CONTROL CHARTS
FOR ATTRIBUTES

p Charts
• Calculate percent defectives in a sample;
• an item is either good or bad

c Charts
• Count number of defects in an item

25
 P-CHART
UCL = p + zp
LCL = p - zp

z = number of standard deviations from

process average
p = sample proportion defective; an
estimate of process average

p= standard deviation of sample

proportion

p(1 - p)
p =
n
Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
3-26
 EXAMPLE

Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

3-27
 CONSTRUCTION OF P-
CHART

NUMBER OF PROPORTION
SAMPLE DEFECTIVES DEFECTIVE
1 6 .06
2 0 .00
3 4 .04
: : :
: : :
20 18 .18
200

20 samples of 100 pairs of jeans

Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
3-28
CONSTRUCTION OF
P-CHART (CONT.)

total defectives
p= = 200 / 20(100) = 0.10
total sample observations

p(1 - p) 0.10(1 - 0.10)

UCL = p + z = 0.10 + 3
n 100
UCL = 0.190

p(1 - p) 0.10(1 - 0.10)

LCL = p - z = 0.10 - 3
n 100
LCL = 0.010

Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

3-29
 0.2
UCL
0.18
0.16
Proportion defective

0.14
0.12
0.1 P
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
LCL
0
0

12

16
10

14

18

20
..

Sample number

30
 C-CHART

UCL = c + zc
c = c
LCL = c - zc

where
c = number of defects per sample

Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

3-31
 C-CHART (CONT.)
Number of defects in 15 inspection samples of hotel
room
NUMBER
SAMPLE OF
DEFECTS
190
1 12 c= = 12.67
15
2 8
UCL = c + zc
3 16
= 12.67 + 3 12.67
: : = 23.35
: : LCL = c - zc
15 15 = 12.67 - 3 12.67
190 = 1.99
Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
3-33
 EXAMPLE C - CHART
24

21

18
Number of defects

.
15

12

0
0

10

12

14
Sample number

34
CONTROL CHARTS
FOR VARIABLES
Mean chart (X-Bar Chart)
• Measures central tendency of a sample

Range chart (R-Chart)

• Measures amount of dispersion in a sample

Each chart measures the process differently. Both

the process average and process variability must
be in control for the process to be in control.

35
 X-BAR CHART EXAMPLE:
STANDARD DEVIATION
UNKNOWN

= =
UCL = x + A2R LCL = x - A2R

where
=
x = average of sample means

Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

3-36
CONTROL CHART FACTORS
-
FACTORS FOR DETERMINING CONTROL LIMITS FOR X AND
R-CHART

SAMPLE SIZE, MEAN FACTOR, UPPER RANGE, LOWER RANGE,

n A2 D4 D3
2 1.880 3.268 0
3 1.023 2.574 0
4 .729 2.282 0
5 .577 2.115 0
6 .483 2.004 0
7 .419 1.924 0.076
8 .373 1.864 0.136
9 .337 1.816 0.184
10 .308 1.777 0.223
12 .266 1.716 0.284
 X-BAR CHART EXAMPLE:
STANDARD DEVIATION
UNKNOWN
OBSERVATIONS (SLIP- RING DIAMETER, CM)
SAMPLE k 1 2 3 4 5 x R
1 5.02 5.01 4.94 4.99 4.96 4.98 0.08
2 5.01 5.03 5.07 4.95 4.96 5.00 0.12
3 4.99 5.00 4.93 4.92 4.99 4.97 0.08
4 5.03 4.91 5.01 4.98 4.89 4.96 0.14
5 4.95 4.92 5.03 5.05 5.01 4.99 0.13
6 4.97 5.06 5.06 4.96 5.03 5.01 0.10
7 5.05 5.01 5.10 4.96 4.99 5.02 0.14
8 5.09 5.10 5.00 4.99 5.08 5.05 0.11
9 5.14 5.10 4.99 5.08 5.09 5.08 0.15
10 5.01 4.98 5.08 5.07 4.99 5.03 0.10
50.09 1.15

Example
Copyright 200915.4
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
3-38
 X-BAR CHART EXAMPLE:
STANDARD DEVIATION
UNKNOWN (CONT.)
∑R 1.15
R= = = 0.115
k 10

= x 50.09
x= = = 5.01 cm
k 10

=
UCL = x + A2R = 5.01 + (0.58)(0.115) = 5.08
=
LCL = x - A2R = 5.01 - (0.58)(0.115) = 4.94
Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Retrieve Factor Value A
2
3-39
X- BAR
CHART
EXAMP
LE
(CONT.
)

Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

3-40
R- CHART

UCL = D4R LCL = D3R

R
R=
k
where
R = range of each sample
k = number of samples
Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
3-41
 R-CHART EXAMPLE
OBSERVATIONS (SLIP-RING DIAMETER, CM)
SAMPLE k 1 2 3 4 5 x R
1 5.02 5.01 4.94 4.99 4.96 4.98 0.08
2 5.01 5.03 5.07 4.95 4.96 5.00 0.12
3 4.99 5.00 4.93 4.92 4.99 4.97 0.08
4 5.03 4.91 5.01 4.98 4.89 4.96 0.14
5 4.95 4.92 5.03 5.05 5.01 4.99 0.13
6 4.97 5.06 5.06 4.96 5.03 5.01 0.10
7 5.05 5.01 5.10 4.96 4.99 5.02 0.14
8 5.09 5.10 5.00 4.99 5.08 5.05 0.11
9 5.14 5.10 4.99 5.08 5.09 5.08 0.15
10 5.01 4.98 5.08 5.07 4.99 5.03 0.10
50.09 1.15

Example 15.3
Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
3-42
 R-CHART EXAMPLE
(CONT.)

UCL = D4R = 2.11(0.115) = 0.243

LCL = D3R = 0(0.115) = 0

Retrieve Factor Values D3 and D4

Example 15.3
Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
3-43
R-CHART EXAMPLE
(CONT.)

0.28 –
0.24 – UCL = 0.243
0.20 –
Range

0.16 – R = 0.115
0.12 –
0.08 –
0.04 – LCL = 0
| | | | | | | | | |
0–
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Sample number
Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
3-44
 CONTROL CHART
PATTERNS
UCL UCL

LCL LCL

Sample observations Sample observations

consistently below the consistently above the
center line center line

© 1998 by Prentice-Hall Inc

Russell/Taylor Oper Mgt 2/e Ch 4 - 34
 CONTROL CHART
PATTERNS

UCL UCL

LCL LCL

Sample observations Sample observations

consistently increasing consistently decreasing

© 1998 by Prentice-Hall Inc

Russell/Taylor Oper Mgt 2/e Ch 4 - 35
 CONTROL CHART
PATTERNS

UCL UCL

LCL LCL

Sample observations Sample observations

consistently below the consistently above the
center line center line
© 1998 by Prentice-Hall Inc
Russell/Taylor Oper Mgt 2/e Ch 4 - 36
 CONTROL CHART
PATTERNS
1. 8 consecutive points on one side of the
center line
2. 8 consecutive points up or down
across zones
3. 14 points alternating up or down
4. 2 out of 3 consecutive points in Zone A
but still inside the control limits
5. 4 out of 5 consecutive points in Zone A or B

48
ZONES FOR PATTERN
TESTS
Values for example 4.4
UCL 5.08
Zone A x + 3 sigma
5.05
Zone B x + 2 sigma
5.03
Zone C x + 1 sigma
X 5.01

Zone C x - 1 sigma 4.98

Zone B x - 2 sigma
4.965
Zone A x - 3 sigma 4.94
LCL

49
SAMPLE SIZE
DETERMINATION
Attribute control charts
• 50 to 100 parts in a sample

Variable control charts

• 2 to 10 parts in a sample

© 1998 by Prentice-Hall Inc

Russell/Taylor Oper Mgt 2/e Ch 4 - 41
 USING X- BAR AND R-
CHARTS TOGETHER

 Process average and process variability must be in control

 It is possible for samples to have very narrow ranges, but
their averages might be beyond control limits
 It is possible for sample averages to be in control, but
ranges might be very large
 It is possible for an R-chart to exhibit a distinct downward
trend, suggesting some nonrandom cause is reducing
variation

Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

3-51
 EXERCISE 1

Construct a chart using 3 sigma limits

Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

3-52
EXERCISE 2

Construct a chart using 3 sigma limits

3-53
EXERCISE 3