Chapter 5: Lipids

 Lipids: soluble in organic solvents but not

in water (and our body is mostly water)
 Note: The usefulness of fats in food and
fats in the body (Table 5-1)
 Recommendations for Dietary Fat
(Table 5-2)
 Nutrition Recommendations for Canadians
[NRC] (2003): <30% energy from dietary fat
 DRI: 20 – 35% energy from dietary fat
 [NRC] <10% energy from saturated fat
(Fig.5-11)
 Trans Fat: WHO <1% energy
 low saturated and trans fat intake helps to
reduce blood cholesterol and thus heart disease
 unsaturated fat reduces blood clotting
 Recommendations for Dietary Fat
 Polyunsaturated fatty acids - DRI:
 5-10% energy from omega-6
 0.6-1.2% energy from omega-3
 Cholesterol:
 DRI: minimize intake within context of healthy
diet
 about 1/3 population responds to lowering
dietary cholesterol intake: limit eggs, shellfish,
liver, etc. but these are nutritious foods
 Lipid Classification

 3 Classes (p. 148-152):

 1. Triglycerides
 95% of lipid in foods and body fat
 3 fatty acids + glycerol backbone (Fig. 5-3);
glycerol is made from glucose or amino
acids
 Classification cont’d

 Fatty acids classified by

a. Chain length
• short: < 10 carbons

• medium: 12-14 carbons

• long: > 16 carbons

Classification cont’d (Fig 5-4)
b. Degree of Saturation (double bonds,
C=C)
• saturated: no double bonds
 tend to be solid at room temp.
 butterfat, coconut & palm oils (Fig 5-5)
• monounsaturated: 1 double bond
 canola & olive oils
• polyunsaturated: 2+ double bonds
 tend to be liquid (oils) at room temp.
 plant & fish oils
 Effects of Processing on
Unsaturated Fats
 Margarines:
 A. Hydrogenation: removing C=C double
bonds by adding hydrogen
 vegetable oil  “hard” margarine, hydrogenated
shortening (Fig. 5-12)
 better storage/less rancidity and high smoke
point for frying
 creates trans-fatty acid which act like saturated
fatty acids in the body (increases risk of
cardiovascular disease)
 Margarines
 Trans fatty acids (Fig. 5-12)
• food labels require a separate category
• consumed in processed foods, fast food,
baked goods, potato chips (Fig 5-13)

 B. Blending different oils to produce a

“soft margarine”
 e.g. Becel and other non-hydrogenated
products
 Other Lipids

 3. Phospholipids
 Glycerol backbone + 2 fatty acids +
phosphorus containing molecule
 Water and fat soluble
 Can serve as emulsifier
 E.g. lecithin in egg yolk – no special health
promoting abilities
 Other Lipids
 4. Sterols
 cholesterol: present in all cell
membranes, bile, and precursor for
• Vitamin D
• sex hormones e.g. estrogen, testosterone
• stress hormones e.g. epinephrine
 Lipid Digestion
 In the stomach:
 Fat separates from watery components and
floats to top
 Little fat digestion
 In the small intestine:
 Bile needed to emulsify lipid and chyme (Fig.
5-6)
 Pancreatic lipase (enzyme) to split into
smaller particles
 Lipid Absorption (Fig. 5-7)
 Small lipids (short and medium chain
fatty acids and glycerol) enter capillary
networkbloodstream
 Large lipids [long chain fatty acids and
monoglycerides (glycerol+1 fatty acid )]
travel in bloodstream as chylomicrons
 Lipid Transport
 Lipoproteins (Fig. 5-9)
 1. Chylomicrons: dietary lipid and carrier
proteins transport fats through watery blood
fluids
 2. Very low density lipoprotein (VLDL):
triglycerides synthesized in liver body cells
 3. Low density lipoprotein (LDL): triglycerides
and cholesterol circulating in blood  body cells
 4. High density lipoprotein (HDL): excess
cholesterol in body cells  liver for excretion
 Lipid Metabolism
 When body starts to run out of fuel from food,
turns to body stores
 Fatty acids are used for energy by many
organs: typical fuel mix is 50/50
carbohydrate/lipid for liver and muscle (at
rest)
 Any time fat broken down for energy, CHO
must be available
 Otherwise ketones develop (products of
incomplete fat breakdown) and build up in blood
and urine
 Blood Cholesterol &
Cardiovascular Disease Risk
 High LDL-cholesterol increases risk for heart
disease
 Table 11.2 (p.411): Major risk factors for
heart disease:
 High LDL cholesterol
 Low HDL cholesterol
 A diet high in saturated and trans fats, and low in
vegetables, fruits and whole grains
 N.B. Diet (low fat & antioxidant nutrients) and
lifestyle factors (Table 11.4, pg. 418)
 Cholesterol (p. 173-174)
 Cholesterol has precursor and structural
roles; required for health
 75-80% is synthesized de novo (in the body)
[drugs to inhibit synthesis]
 Stimulation of synthesis by saturated fats
 Dietary cholesterol plays a lesser role than
saturated and trans fat in cardiovascular
disease
 ~60% exhibit little increase in blood
cholesterol with high cholesterol diet
 Essential Fatty Acids (EFA)
 Linoleic acid (e.g. of omega-6) and
Linolenic acid (e.g. of omega-3)
 The only fatty acids that cannot be
synthesized by the body
 Essential nutrients
 Polyunsaturated fatty acids
 Used by the body to make eicosanoids
• Biologically active compounds that regulate
body functions
 Functions: Table 5.3
 EFAs
 When diet deficient in all polyunsaturated
fatty acids (PUFAs):
 skin lesions
 reproductive failure
 fatty liver
 kidney disorders
 reduced learning
  growth
 impaired vision
 Deficiency rare: body stores some extra
 Omega-6

 C=C 6 carbons from end

 Ex. Linoleic Acid
 DRI: 5-10% energy from n-6 fatty acids
 Sources: vegetable oils, seeds, nuts,
whole grain products (Table 5.5)
 Omega-3
 C=C 3 carbons from end
 DRI: 0.6-1.2% energy from n-3 fatty acids
 Sources: flaxseed, flaxseed oil, canola oil, fish
(especially deep sea fish) (Table 5.5)
 Three main types:
 ALA – from plant sources
 EPA – from fish sources
 DHA – from fish sources
 Body can retro-convert some ALA to
EPA/DHA
 Omega-3 fatty acids
 N.B. ratio of n-6/n-3: need more n-3 in
our diet (like ancestors) to prevent heart
disease
 Recommendation: 2-3 meals of fatty fish
per week to improve heart health
 EPA/DHA content reduced in fried fish
 Studies: fish more beneficial than
supplements
Potential Benefits of EPA/DHA

 Table 5.4:
 Heart disease (supported by most studies)
 Infant growth and development (strong
evidence)
 Cancer (research promising, but need
further evidence)
 Mercury in Fish
 Contaminated fish
 Generally low levels of mercury contaminate most fish
species
 It is yet to be established just how much mercury
worsens preexisting heart disease
 Fish heavily contaminated with mercury
 Shark
 Swordfish
 King mackerel
 Fresh tuna steak (Albacore)
 Tilefish
 Mercury in Fish
 Fish/seafood lower in mercury
 Shrimp
 Canned light tuna
• Canned albacore (“white”) tuna contains more
mercury than light tuna
 Salmon
 Pollock
 Catfish
 Mercury in Fish

 Recommendations
 Consume a variety of fish
• Minimizes exposure to any particular toxin that
may accumulate in a particular fish species
 Pregnant women and children
• Most sensitive to the side effects of mercury
• Can safely benefit from safer fish varieties
within recommended limits
 “Survey Says…”
Major dietary sources of fat

 1. dairy products  6. fresh meats

(excluding milk &  7. butter
butter)  8. fluid milk
 2. processed meat
 3. margarine  All except salad &
 4. salad and cooking oils are
cooking oils sources of
 5. bakery products saturated fat.
 Dietary Fat: g, % Calories
 Ice cream (1 cup=357 Cal) 24 g, 61%
 Ice milk (1 cup=182 Cal) 6 g, 30%
 Cheddar cheese (50 g=205 Cal) 16 g, 70%
 Low fat mozzarella (50 g=142 Cal) 9 g, 57%
 Wiener for hot dog (2=360 Cal) 32 g, 80%
 Lean beef (4 oz=250 Cal) 11 g, 40%
 Macaroni & cheese (1 c=430 Cal) 22 g, 46%
 Spaghetti & tomato (1c=260 Cal) 9 g, 31%
sauce
 Fats in the Diet

 Watch added fat (p. 183), Table 5.8

Substitutes for high-fat ingredients
 Food Feature: Defensive Dining (p. 191-
194)
 Fig 5.19 Fast Food Choices
Consumer Corner: Fat Replacers
(p. 184-186)

Fat Replacement:
 Alter preparation method, for example
 add water or whip air into foods
 add non-fat milk to creamy foods
 use lean products vs. high fat
 bake rather than fry
 Consumer Corner: Fat Replacers
 Fat replacers can be CHO, fibre, fat or
protein based (Table 5.7)
 Olestra (core of sucrose + 8 fatty acids)
• not digested or absorbed: noncaloric
• not approved in Canada
• approved for snack foods in USA
• concerns: digestive problems, losses of
nutrients and phytochemicals
• Fig 5.15; Olestra’s Pros and Cons
 Controversy 5 (p. 191-194)
 High Fat Foods: Which to Choose for
Good Health?
 Several problems can accompany low-fat
diets
 It can be difficult to maintain such a diet
 Such diets are not necessarily low-calorie
diets
• Many people with heart disease are overweight
and need to reduce body weight
 Controversy 5

 Diets high in carbohydrates (especially

refined sugars) but low in fiber, cause blood
triglycerides to rise
• Unknown effects on heart health
 Taken to an extreme, a low-fat diet may
exclude nutritious foods that provide the
essential fatty acids, phytochemicals,
vitamins, and minerals
• Fatty fish, nuts, seeds, vegetable oils
 Controversy 5
 Seven Countries Study of healthy people
 Death rates from heart disease were strongly
associated with diets high in saturated fats
 Death rates from heart disease were only
weakly associated with diets high in total fat
 Finland & the Greek island of Crete were the two
countries with the highest fat intake
• Finland had the highest rate of death from heart
disease
• Crete had the lowest rate of death from heart disease
 Relative to Finland people in Crete had a diet
• High in olive oil
• Low in saturated fat (Less than 10% of calories)
High Fat Foods and Heart Health

 Olive oil
 Mediterranean Diet
 Nuts
 Butter vs. margarine:
 Fish – omega-3’s
 Better types of fat
 Olive Oil
 Olive oil may protect against heart
disease by:
 Lowering total and LDL cholesterol and not
lowering HDL cholesterol or raising
triglycerides
 Making LDL cholesterol less vulnerable to
oxidation
 Lowering blood-clotting factors
 Providing phytochemicals that act as
antioxidants
 Lowering blood pressure
 Mediterranean Diet
 Greece: less death from heart disease
and longer life expectancy compared to
North America
 Migration studies: if move to North
America, increased risk of heart disease,
therefore, diet (not just genetics)
important
 Mediterranean Diet
 Mixed diet (pyramid Fig C5.2):
 grains, legumes (dried beans & peas), fruits,
vegetables, olive oil, cheese & yogurt. Meats
and sweets are occasional.
 High in total fat (42% of calories)
 olive oil predominant (contains
monounsaturated fat like canola oil)
 High in complex CHO and fibre
 grains, fruit & vegetables, legumes
 Mediterranean Diet
 Lower in animal protein and fat
 cheese (saturated fat)
 beans & legumes: CHO, fibre, protein, iron, calcium
[& no/little fat]
 fish, poultry, eggs and sweet a few times per week

 Other Factors:
 Yogurt & live Lactobacillus cultures (probiotic):
disease prevention?
 Red wine contains phytochemicals (protective
antioxidants)
 ??individual foods vs pattern of diet
 ??other lifestyle factors
 Nuts
 Nuts are:
 Low in saturated fat
 High in fiber, vegetable protein, and other
valuable nutrients, including vitamin E
 High in phytochemicals that act as antioxidants
 Studies: 1 ounce of nuts five or more days
per week, may lower risk of heart disease
 Walnuts and almonds – may have positive
effects on blood lipids
 Butter or Margarine?

 Some margarines – hydrogenated

 Some margarines have added sterol
esters
 May lower blood cholesterol levels

 Butter: CLA
 ? benefit
 Better Types of Fat

 Choose unsaturated fats

 Limit saturated and trans fats
 Table C5.1