Design Criteria for Highway and

Railways
Group 2 Members: Allen Justine Burce Harly Dave Dagohoy
Jayson Casaljay Victhur Morillo
 Design Criteria for
Highway and Railways

Consistency
Consistency is the most important single rule in highway
design. That is, by making every element of the roadway conforms
to the expectation of every driver.

Drivers expect the highway agency to provide them with:

1. Clear information and guidance through a variety of road signs.
2. Avoiding abrupt changes in the traffic as well as the road
standards.
 Design Criteria for
Highway and Railways

If these guides and directions could be planned properly to

convey one single message at a time, and if these directions will be
followed smoothly and easily without undue haste, or changes in
speed, then, the roadway facilities are considered satisfactory.
Experienced highway Engineers recommended that highway signs
and directions should be integrated as early as the preliminary
layout studies.
 Design Criteria for
Highway and Railways

The Design Speed

There is no single set of Geometric Standards that will apply to
all highways. For every highway segment, decisions regarding
appropriate control for each of the many details or requirements
must be addressed individually or separately.

Basic Design Features refers to the tightness and super

elevation of curves, the sight distance, and grade. The design
speed is basically higher than the anticipated average speed.
 Design Criteria for
Highway and Railways

For economic reasons, the Geometric Features of certain road

sections are designed for speed from 30 to 50 kilometers per hour.
And yet, some motorists drive faster on straight road alignment or
less sharply curved sections. Under these situations, highway
design adopted control by reducing the super elevation combined
with easement curves, delineators, stripping signs and rumble
strips, to alert motorists and inform them that they are
approaching sharp curves or blind curves.
 Design Criteria for
Highway and Railways

ACTUAL PHOTO OF RUMBLE STRIPS

 Design Criteria for
Highway and Railways

The AASHTO practice is to classify first the highway as Rural or

Urban, then as Freeways, Arterials, Collectors and Local. Rural
collectors and local facilities are classified as flat, rolling, or
mountainous. Although the design speed presently used is 80 km.
per hour, highway designers projected design speed up ta 120
kilometers per hour to guarantee against future obsolescence as
well as the increased margin of operating safety. The high speed
road design must anticipate future generation high speed vehicles
and advanced transportation systems that may operate on many
of these road alignments.
 Design Criteria for
Highway and Railways

Although the design speed of most highways is governed by

construction costs, the concept of the relatively high speed design
for freeways is Regardless of Cost. They are planned for a
nationwide high volume traffic and high speed network.
 Design Criteria for
Highway and Railways
 Design Criteria for
Highway and Railways

AADT or ADT refers to traffic volume or flow on a highway as

measured by the number of vehicles passing a partial station
during a given interval of time. It is called "Average Annual Daily
Traffic". if the period is less than one year. Volume may be stated
on hourly "Observed Traffic Volume" or estimated 30th hour
volume commonly used for design purposes. Some highway
agencies use traffic volume for 5 minutes interval to distinguish
short peak movements of vehicles.
 Design Criteria for
Highway and Railways

Speed Implications
Research shows that lower speeds lead to fewer and less
serious crashes. There are two reasons for this:

• At higher speeds a rider or a driver has less time to react to a

situation and therefore there is a greater likelihood that an
error will result in a crash; and
• The momentum and kinetic energy of a vehicle increases
rapidly with speed. The sudden dissipation of this energy in a
crash means that the injury to occupants is more severe.

Therefore, a carefully planned speed limit regime can make a

significant contribution to road safety.
 Design Criteria for
Highway and Railways

Current Speed Limits

The current speed restrictions are set out in Chapter IV – Traffic
Rules, in Republic Act No. 4136 Land Transportation and Traffic
Code.
The rules indicate that a motorist shall drive at a safe speed
determined by the driver based on the road environment
conditions. There are however maximum allowable speeds for
different road environments.
 Design Criteria for
Highway and Railways

On open country roads with no "blind corners" not closely

bordered by habitation, the maximum speed for passenger cars
and motorcycles is 80 kph and for motor trucks and buses, 50 kph.

On "through streets" or boulevards clear of traffic, with no

"blind corners", when so designated, the maximum speed for
passenger cars and motorcycles is 40 kph and for motor trucks and
buses, 30 kph.
 Design Criteria for
Highway and Railways

On city and municipal streets, with light traffic, when not

designated "through streets," the maximum speed for passenger
cars, motorcycles, motor trucks and buses is 30 kph.

Where it is determined that a road should have a different

speed restriction to that indicated above, then specific speed
restriction signs should be installed to inform motorists. The
following sections describe where certain speed restriction could
be appropriate.
 Design Criteria for
Highway and Railways

High Risk Pedestrian Areas – 40 kph

Vulnerable road users, especially pedestrians, are particularly
vulnerable at higher speeds. The graph below based on
international research shows the risk of a pedestrian fatality if hit
by a vehicle at different speeds.
 Design Criteria for
Highway and Railways
RISK OF PEDESTRIAN FATALITY
 Design Criteria for
Highway and Railways

For instance, 25% of people struck by a vehicle traveling at 40

kph would suffer fatal injuries. At 50 kph this risk increases to 85%.
Therefore, a speed limit of 40 kph or lower would be appropriate
on roads where there is high pedestrian activity such as in city
areas.
A 40 kph speed limit would also be appropriate on roads
where there are no one footpaths and pedestrians are required to
walk on the road.
 Design Criteria for
Highway and Railways

Low risk pedestrian areas – 60 kph

On roads through built-up areas where there are not so many
pedestrians. It is appropriate to allow motorized traffic to travel
more quickly.
The following pictures shows the type of environment where
60 kph may be appropriate. Although this road is carrying
vulnerable road users, they have separate lane to travel in.
 Design Criteria for
Highway and Railways
HIGH SPEED ROAD WITH SEPARATE LANE FOR NON-MOTORIZED VEHICLES
 Design Criteria for
Highway and Railways

80 kph
An 80 kph speed limit would be appropriate on a high standard
duplicated carriage road where there is only occasional access
from adjoining properties.

100 kph
A 100 kph speed limit would only be appropriate on very high
standard expressways, which have a low crash rate. These
expressways should have a high standard geometry and should be
free of roadside hazards. If
 Design Criteria for
Highway and Railways

Speed Restriction Signs

Good speed management practice depends on speed limit signs
being placed in visible locations and repeated frequently enough for
motorists to be certain of which speed zone they are in.
At the start of a new speed zone, a speed limit sign should be
erected on the left and right sides of the road. Then within the first
kilometer, there should be two (2) farther pairs of repeater speed limit
signs.
After that, repeater signs should be placed at one kilometer
spacing. Repeater signs should also be placed before and after all major
intersections to confirm the speed limit to all traffic turning into the
road being considered.
 Design Criteria for
Highway and Railways

Poor Road Standards

If the standard of the road geometry or its surface is poor, then it may
be appropriate to adopt a lower speed limit than would normally apply
until such time that the road improvements can be made. The lower
speeds compensate for the hazardous conditions of the road.
An 80 kph or 90 kph speed limit may also be appropriate on lower
standard expressways. For instance, the concrete plant cylinders on the
side of the expressway as shown below are a serious road hazard within
the clear zone which would cause injury to the occupants of an out of
control vehicle. If this road hazard cannot be removed or protection for
vehicles provided, the speed limit should be restricted to reduce the risk
to motorists and riders.
 Design Criteria for
Highway and Railways

HIGH SPEED ROAD WITH WIDE MEDIAN

 Design Criteria for
Highway and Railways

Road Capacity
Road capacity, as defined in the U.S. Highway Capacity Manual
(HCM), is the maximum number of vehicles, which have a
reasonable expectation of passing over a given section of a lane or
a roadway in one direction or in both directions during one hour
under prevailing road and traffic conditions.
Generally, road capacity with respect to road sections is
measured in terms of level-of-service. This is designated with
letters ‘A’ and ‘F’ with ‘A’ the most ideal condition and ‘F’ the
saturated condition where volume is equal to the road capacity.
 Design Criteria for
Highway and Railways

In regard to intersections, capacity is generally measured in terms of

‘degree of saturation’
The capacity of a route can be affected by the following factors:
• Number of Lanes;
• Lane and shoulder width;
• Terrain and road gradient;
• Traffic composition;
• Side friction such as the presence of road furniture and pedestrians;
and
• Intersection capacity (priority and movements, traffic signal phasing,
number of lanes, etc.)
 Design Criteria for
Highway and Railways

Ideal capacity of a road is 2.000 vehicles/hour (vph). However,

based on several surveys conducted in Metro Manila for various
infrastructure projects, it was found that the maximum volume is
achieve only at a level of 1,400 vph on expressways and 1,100 for
urban arterials.

In the design stage of a road project, appropriate capacity

should be established to ensure satisfactory operation. In
establishing the capacity of the road, actual traffic surveys as well
as investigation of future use is required to ensure that safety is
not compromised once the facility is in operation.
 Design Criteria for
Highway and Railways

Road Types
The basic functional types of roads are locals, collectors,
arterials and freeways. Two major considerations in the
classification of highway functional types are access to land use
and mobility. On the two extremes, the design of local streets
emphasizes access with little consideration for mobility, while the
design of freeways emphasizes mobility with limited access. The
design of collectors and arterials falls in between, with collectors
emphasizes more for access and arterials favors mobility.
 Design Criteria for
Highway and Railways

Design Vehicles
There are generally four classes of design vehicles:
(1) passenger cars,
(2) buses,
(3) trucks, and
(4) recreational vehicles.
The passenger car category includes sport utility vehicles,
minivans, vans, and pickup trucks.
The bus and truck categories include buses and trucks of all
sizes, respectively.
 Design Criteria for
Highway and Railways

The highway designer should exercise his judgment in selecting

the appropriate design vehicle for design control, based on the
intended use of the facility. For example, the design vehicle from
the passenger car category is adequate for the design of parking
lots and their access roads. On the other hand, a city transit bus
should be used for the design of a street in the city along bus
route, with little or no truck traffic.
 Design Criteria for
Highway and Railways

Turning radius limits the design of horizontal curves. Important

vehicle characteristics that affect the minimum turning radius are:
minimum center line turning radius, wheelbase, track width, and
out-of-track width. AASHTO has provided the templates for turning
paths of 17 design vehicles traveling at 15 km/h. The minimum
design turning, center line turning and minimum inside radius are
listed below.
 Design Criteria for
Highway and Railways

Driver Characteristics
Geometric design of a highway should consider users,
especially drivers’ performance limits. There are limits to a driver’s
vision, perception, reaction, concentration, and comfort that could
impact the highway safety and operating efficiency.
When driving, most drivers receive information visually from
their views of the roadway alignment, markings and signs. They do
receive other information through vehicle feedback from the
suspension system and steering control, and roadway noise.
 Design Criteria for
Highway and Railways

The information received by a driver needs time to be processed before a

response action takes place. A well-known study on the brake-reaction time has
been made by Johannson and Rumar (1971). They reported that when an event is
expected, the driver’s reaction time has an average value of 0.6 sec. For an
unexpected event, the average reaction time is 0.8 sec. The average brake-
reaction time of a driver (including decision time), is 2.5 sec. This is dependent on
the driver’s alertness. Brake-reaction time is important in determining sight
distance in highway geometric design. Koppa (2000) has summarized the results
obtained from recent studies on brake-reaction time. These findings are consistent
with those obtained by Johansson and Rumar. Readers may refer to Koppa (2000)
for more details. Driver expectancies are built up over time, with consistent road
design. Unusual or unexpected geometric design or event always leads to longer
reaction and response time. The geometric design of highway should be in
accordance with the driver’s expectation.
 Design Criteria for
Highway and Railways

In recent years, there has been increased concern for older

drivers. The percentage of older drivers among the driving
population has increased over the years. Older drivers tend to
have longer reaction time, and this should be reflected in the
design.
 Design Criteria for
Highway and Railways

Number of Lanes
The number of lanes in a segment of the highway is
determined from the estimated traffic volume for the design year
(AADT) and highway lane capacity at expected level of service.
AASHTO policies accept a dually divided 16 lanes roadway with
four lanes in each direction for an inner freeway and four more
lanes in each direction on the outside. There are some instances
where a reversible lane is located at the center of freeways with
unbalanced heavy traffic flow.
 Design Criteria for
Highway and Railways

Level of Service Consideration

Given a fixed volume of traffic flow and vehicle composition, the
geometric design of highways, such as the horizontal and vertical curves,
grades, lane width, number of lanes, etc., affects the travel speed of
vehicles and the interaction between vehicles. The outcome of such
effect is the observable operational performance of the highway,
qualitatively represented by the highway level of service. The concept of
LOS and methods of evaluation for different highway types are covered
in great detail in the Highway Capacity Manual (TRB 2000).
The highway designer should strive to provide a LOS that is as high
as possible. AASHTO (2001) has published a list of acceptable LOS for
different road types.
 Design Criteria for
Highway and Railways

It is recommended that, after the designer has come out with

the geometric elements of the highway (horizontal and vertical
curves, grades, super-elevation, etc.) after checking through all the
design elements, he should estimate the LOS based on the road
type, designed volume, vehicle composition, number of lanes, and
lane width. The geometric design should be revised if the LOS is
not meeting.
the expectation (for examples, by modifying the grades, radius
of curvature). He should also ensure that continuous segments of
the same highway do not have sudden change in LOS that may
cause surprise to the drivers.
 Design Criteria for
Highway and Railways
 Design Criteria for
Highway and Railways

Railroad - Highway Separation

The main question asked on a railroad and highway separation is:
'Where one is to go over- the railroad or the highway? If the highway is
to go over the railroad, the structure itself is lighter and the highway
load is much smaller than the railroad loads. With regards to the
vertical clearance height, the railroad requires a minimum of 7.00
meters as against 4.80 meters clear distance above the highway. If the
highway goes under the railroad, special provision is required for the
removal of rainwater that falls within the opposing area. If the ground
water is high in the vicinity of the crossing, the roadway must be sealed
against leakage and be made heavy enough to prevent from floating.
 Design Criteria for
Railways

DESIGN CRITERIA FOR RAILWAYS

Equilibrium speed
• When the speed of a vehicle negotiating a curved track is such
that the resultant force of the weight of the vehicle and of radial
acceleration is perpendicular to the plane of the rails, the vehicle
is not subjected to any unbalanced radial acceleration and is said
to be in equilibrium.
• This particular speed is called the equilibrium speed. The
equilibrium speed, as such, is the speed at which the effect of
the centrifugal force is completely balanced by the cant
provided.
 Design Criteria for
Railways

Maximum permissible speed

• This is the highest speed permitted to a train on a curve taking
into consideration the radius of curvature, actual cant, cant
deficiency, cant excess, and the length of transition.
• On curves where the maximum permissible speed is less than
the maximum sectional speed of the section of the line,
permanent speed restriction becomes necessary
 Design Criteria for
Railways

Cant deficiency
• Cant deficiency (Cd) occurs when a train travels around a curve
at a speed higher than the equilibrium speed. It is the
difference between the theoretical cant required for such high
speeds and the actual cant provided.
 Design Criteria for
Railways

Cant Excess
• Cant excess (Ce) occurs when a train travels around a curve at a
speed lower than the equilibrium speed. It is the difference
between the actual cant provided and the theoretical cant
required for such a low speed.
• The limiting values of cant excess have also been prescribed.
Cant excess should not be more than 75 mm on broad gauge
and 65 mm on meter gauge for all types of rolling stock.
 Design Criteria for
Railways

Cant gradient and cant deficiency gradient

• These indicate the increase or decrease in the cant or the
deficiency of cant in a given length of transition.
• A gradient of 1 in 1000 means that a cant or a deficiency of cant
of 1 mm is attained or lost in every 1000 mm of transition
length.
 Design Criteria for
Railways

Rate of change of cant or cant deficiency

• This is the rate at which cant deficiency increases while passing
over the transition curve, e.g., a rate of 35 mm per second
means that a vehicle will experience a change in cant or a cant
deficiency of 35 mm in each second of travel over the transition
when travelling at the maximum permissible speed.
 Design Criteria for
Railways

Centrifugal Force on a Curved Track

• A vehicle has a tendency to travel in a straight direction, which
is tangential to the curve, even when it moves on a circular
curve. As a result, the vehicle is subjected to a constant radial
acceleration:

Radial acceleration, g = V2/R

where V is the velocity (meters per second) and R is the radius
of curve (meters)
 Design Criteria for
Railways

• This radial acceleration produces a centrifugal force which acts

in a radial direction away from the center. The value of the
centrifugal force is given by the formula:
Force = mass × acceleration
F = m × (V2/R) = (W/g) × (V2/R)
where F is the centrifugal force (tonnes), W is the weight of the
vehicle (tonnes), V is the speed, (meter/sec), g is the
acceleration due to gravity (meter/sec2), and R is the radius of
the curve (meters).
 Design Criteria for
Railways

• To counteract the effect of the centrifugal force, the outer rail of

the curve is elevated with respect to the inner rail by an amount
equal to the superelevation.
• A state of equilibrium is reached when both the wheels exert
equal pressure on the rails and the superelevation is enough to
bring the resultant of the centrifugal force and the force exerted
by the weight of the vehicle at right angles to the plane of the
top surface of the rails. In this state of equilibrium, the
difference in the heights of the outer and inner rails of the
curve known as equilibrium superelevation.
THANK YOU!