CHAPTER FOUR

ENVIRONMENTAL RISK
ASSESSMENT
 ERA
• Up on completion of this chapter, you
will be able to:
Define & understand the concept of
risk
Identify & discuss the steps involved
in performing a RA
Understand the roles of RA & RM
 Risk assessment
 Risk:
– The probability that an event will
occur.
– The probability that a health effect will
occur after an individual has been
exposed to a specified amount of a
hazard.
Cont’s......
 Limiting assumptions of risk analysis:
• Focus on the factual
a quantification of the “undesirable
consequences” of technology such as
human health effects & env’tal degradation.
• Not focus on the axiological
The evaluation of the “unintended impacts”
of technology on the manner in which we
live; psychologically, socially & spiritually.
Cont’s......
Risk assessment
– The process of gathering all available
information on the toxic effects of a
chemical & evaluating it to determine the
possible risks associated with exposure.
– A step in a risk management procedure
Cont’s......
 Objectives
• The objectives of a RA will vary depending on the
nature of the site and the Tier at which RA is being
undertaken.
 To establish whether contamination is present,
at what concentrations and in what media.(no
previous studies)
It identify that a particular contaminant
pathway needs to be further assessed.(there
has been previous studies)
Cont’s......
It may address a particular information gap.
(previous tiers completed)
 To determine whether any identified people or
ecological values are likely to be adversely
affected by soil, water, or air contamination.
enable land managers to make decisions about
managing contaminant risks on sites of
concern.
Cont’s......

• RA techniques are based on a causal stress-response

model.

source pathway receptor

Cont’s......

• The process of gathering & evaluating the

information can be undertaken at three
distinct levels (Tiers).
Tier 1: Qualitative
Tier 2: Semi-quantitative
Tier 3: Quantitative
Cont’s......
Tier 1 RA
 the collation of information either through literature
review or site investigation should be preliminary.
Purpose: to determine two main points:
• whether there is a potentially complete pathway
between the contaminant of concern and potential
receptors, and
• Whether contaminant concentrations exceed
benchmark or guideline values for relevant receptors
or media of concern.
Cont’s......

• It assesses contaminants of concern against

published assessment criteria (guideline
values or benchmark criteria).
• A risk management decision may be made,
based on the Risk Characterization.
Cont’s......

 Tier 2 RA
• primarily intended to involve a more intensive
literature search to modify the assumptions of the
benchmark criteria used in Tier 1(may involve more
detailed site investigations if required).
• The intention of this stage is
 to undertake a preliminary customization of
criteria for each contaminant.
 to establish modified assessment criteria. 
Cont’s......

• If the contaminant concentrations do not exceed the

modified criteria,
 the RA process may be suspended without
proceeding to Tier 3, and an ecological risk
management decision made.
 Tier 3 RA
• It will involve the development of complex models
supported by further intensive site investigations of
the contaminants of concern, pathways, and
receptors characteristics.
Cont’s......
• The intention of this tier is:
 to further customize the modified criteria
values calculated in Tier 2 (to achieve a
more accurate representation of the risk).  
• The risk management decision may involve
remediation or further iterations and will be
made based on the Tier 3 Risk
Characterization of the site.
Cont’s......

 The process of gathering & evaluating

information can be divided into:
hazard Identification
Dose-Response assessment
Exposure Assessment
Risk characterization.   
Cont’s......
Hazard Identification

Dose-response r/n ship Exposure Assessment

Risk Characterization

Risk Management
 HAZARD IDENTIFICATION
Hazard
– is anything with the potential to cause harm.
– is any condition, event, or circumstance which could
induce an accident
– any existing or potential condition that can lead to
injury, illness, or death to people; damage to or loss
of a system, equipment, or property; or damage to
the environment.
– a condition that is a prerequisite to an accident or
incident.
 Cont’s......
 Hazard Identification
– the process of collecting data from different
sources to determine wether the substance is
toxic.
– It involves gathering & examining data from
toxicological & epidemiological studies.
• Epidemiology: is the study of the causative factors
that are associated with the occurrence & number of
cases of diseases & illness in a specific population.
Cont’s......
• Epidemiological studies:
i. Retrospective studies
 Attempt to gather information from the past.
 Some times information is incomplete.
 Some times difficult to determine if there is a
r/n ship b/n effect & a specific factor.
ii. Prospective studies
 Gather information from current, ongoing
investigations.
 The results are more complete & accurate.
Cont’s......
• Toxicological studies:
i. Acute toxicity studies
It look at short term exposures.
ii. Chronic toxicity studies
It look at exposures over a long period of
time.
 Objective
 to identify the hazards in the organisational
systems and operational environment and
facilitate the control of these hazards.
Cont’s......
• Types of information collected & considered
 Collection of data
a) Name of substance
b) Physical/chemical properties
c) Source of the toxicity information
d) Exposure to toxic substances
o route of exposure
o Duration of exposure
o Frequency of exposure
o Exposure to other toxic substances
e) Information on other factors
 Dose-response relationship
• If the hazard identification process produces
evidence of a hazard, then a hazard evaluation
is performed.
• The purpose of this step is to calculate( if
possible) the dose at which a harmful effect
will occur.
• Tells the toxicologist what dose cause a
response, usually illness or death.
Cont’s......
• Factors to be considered when performing
Dose-Response r/n ship include:
i. Calculate dose-effect.
ii. Incorporate safety factor.
iii. Determine Dose-Response R/n ship.
Cont’s......
A dose-response curve :
• is a simple X-Y graph relating the magnitude of a
stressor to the response of the receptor
 stressor (e.g. concentration of a pollutant,
amount of a drug, temperature, intensity of
radiation)
 receptor (e.g. organism under study).
• The response may be a physiological or
biochemical response, or even death (mortality).
 Dose response mortality curves for acute
toxicity.

100 100

Chem. A Chem. C
chem. A Chem. B 50 ................................................................
50 -.....................................................

0
0
100 LD50 LD 50 10000
100 LD50 LD 50 1000
Hazard Index for Non carcinogenic Effects

Res
Non carcinogen

Actual Threshold
RFD NOAEL LOAEL

Dose (mg/kg/day)
 Cont’s......
 The hazard index for non carcinogenic effect
 Reference dose(RFD):
The level at which any adverse health effects have been
observed.
Used to be called acceptable daily intake(ADI)
Is calculated as:
[NOAEL]
RFD(mg/kg  day) 
[uncertain ty factor]
Uncertainty factor = safety factor = 10 to 1000
• To see wether the actual dose is supposedly safe; compare
actual exposure to the RFD.

[ADD during exposure period(mg/kg - day)]

Hazard quotient 
RFD
Cont’s......
• Notice:
– the toxicity is important only during the time of exposure.
(ADD is only over the period of exposure)
– For cancer risk calculation an assumed exposure time is 70-
years.
[incremental life time of cancer risk]
Potency factor =
[chronic daily intake (mg/kg - day)]

[ADD(mg/day)]
CDI(mg/kg - day) 
[body weight(kg)]

Risk = CDI * potency factor

 Exposure assessment
• Exposure : the contact between an agent and
a target. Contact takes place at an exposure
surface over an exposure period.
Exposure assessment :is performed to
identify the affected population & to
calculate(if possible) the amount, frequency,
length of time, and route of exposure.
Cont’s......
• Quantitative measures of exposure are used:
 to determine risk from substances
released to the environment
To establish protective standards
 to distinguish between exposed and
control groups
To protect workers from some
occupational hazards
Cont’s......
 Routes of exposure
• The possible routes of exposure are:
Inhalation, if the contaminant is present
in the air
Ingestion, through food, drinking or
hand-to-mouth behavior
Dermal absorption, if the contaminant
can be absorbed through the skin
Cont’s......
 Measurement of exposure
To quantify the exposure of particular individuals or populations
two approaches are used:
I. Direct approach
• measures the exposures to pollutants by monitoring the
pollutant concentrations reaching the respondents.
• The pollutant concentrations are directly monitored on or
within the person through:
 point of contact (indicates the total concentration reaching
the host)
 biological monitoring, or biomarkers (infer the dosage of
the pollutant through the determination of the body
burden)
Cont’s......
• Advantage:
 the exposures through multiple media (air, soil,
water, food, etc.) are accounted for through one
study technique.
more accurate
• Disadvantages:
 the invasive nature of the data collection and
associated costs.
Cont’s......
II. Indirect approach
• measures the pollutant concentrations in
various locations or during specific human
activities to predict the exposure distributions
within a population.
• focuses on the pollutant concentrations
within microenvironments or activities rather
than the concentrations directly reaching the
respondents.
 Cont’s......
• determines the estimated exposure distributions
within a population rather than the direct exposure an
individual has experienced.
• Advantage
 process is minimally invasive to the population and
is associated with lower costs than the direct
approach.
• Disadvantage
so the exposure distribution is open to errors. ( b/c
the results were determined independently of any
actual exposures)
Cont’s......
Factors to be considered when performing an
exposure assessment include:
1. General information for each chemical
– molecular formula & structure.
– Chemical & physical properties.
2. Sources
– Characterization of production & distribution.
– Uses
– Disposal
– Summary of environmental releases.
Cont’s......
3. Exposure pathways & Env’tal fate
– Transport & transformation
– Identification of principal pathways of
exposure
– Predicting environmental distribution
4. Measured or Estimated concentrations
– Uses of measurements
– Estimation of Env’tal concentrations
Cont’s......
5. Exposed human populations
– Size & characteristics
– Geographic area
– Health impact on susceptible population
– Population habits
6. Integrated exposure analysis(measurement of
exposure)
– Calculation of exposure
– Identification of the exposed population
– Identification of pathways of exposure
 Risk characterization
• It is the process of estimating the magnitude and
probability of effects.
 objective
– to collate and summarize the information
obtained during the previous tasks.
– to combine the results of the Receptor
characterization, Toxicity Assessment and
Exposure Assessment to determine the probability
that a risk may exist, and if so what the magnitude
of that risk is. 
Cont’s......
– to provide land managers with sufficiently clear
information to allow risk management decisions
to be made.
• Risk characterization needs to take into account the:
limitations of the data collected, and the
assumptions and uncertainties inherent in the
data and models used. 
 effects of remedial actions on ecological receptors
as the adverse effect of mitigation may negate the
benefits of removing the contaminant.
 Risk management
• Based on information obtained from the RA,
decisions are made about the best way to
address env’tal contamination & exposure.
• RM also includes an evaluation of social, legal,
economic & police issue to determine the best
approach to address an exposure issue.
 WQOCS
Water quality objective
• It refers to general aims or goals to be obtained
usually within a fixed time frame.
• It simply indicate the overall objective towards
which the regulatory programme is directed &
defined.
E.g. With in ten years no streams & rivers in a
country should have anaerobic conditions as
indicated by bad smell & a black colour.
Cont’s......

Water quality criteria

• Represent the characteristics of water that are
necessary or desirable for specific uses.
• Expressed in specific numerical forms & are
thus more specific than objective.
E.g. The boron content of irrigation water should
be less than 0.75mg/L for sensitive crops.
Cont’s......
Water quality guidelines
• Numerical concentration or general statements
recommended to support & maintain a designated
water use.
• They indicate strong desire for achievement &
compliance.
• They clearly express the ultimate desirable quality
that should be achieved.
E.g. The international drinking water guideline of
WHO.
Cont’s......
Water quality standards
• Form the yardstick by which regulatory agencies
define their requirements for water streams &
water bodies.
• Are rigid reflections of laws & regulations.
• Are usually viewed as absolute; either they are
met or violated.
• It should be noted that not every country by all
means should try to establish their own
standards.
Cont’s......
• There are three water quality standards
1. Technology-based standards
– These are guided in the USA, with an assumption
that the application of best technology is
adequate for env’tal protection.
– Also known as removal standards, when they
specify the degree of removal to be attained in
the treatment plant.
Cont’s......

2. Effluent standards
• These refers to the min. Concentrations of potential
pollutants measured at the discharge points where
the WW stream begins its contact with the env’t.
• Expressed in concentrations disregard the status of
the env’t.
• A WWTP still has to ensure that its effluent
discharge achieve the determined concentration
limits.
Cont’s......

3. Receiving-stream standards
• These makes use of the natural
purification(assimilative) capacity of the
receiving stream.
• A stream which has higher assimilative
capacity can receive higher pollutant loads.
pollutant Main source Effects Possible control

Organic Oxygen Human sewage, Over load depletes Provide secondary

demanding waste animal waste, DO in water, animal & tertiary WWT
decaying plant life, life destroyed or minimize
Industrial waste migrates away, agricultural runoff
plant life destroyed
Plant nutrient Agricultural runoff,
detergents
industrial