LESSON 6

EARTHQUAKES
GEOLOGY FOR CIVIL ENGINEERING
 REPORTERS

MARY CRIS
RUSSHEL TAGAM DIAN SOMBILON
DAGASDAS
EARTHQUAKES
TOPICS INCLUDED:

• The Elastic Rebound Theory

• Earthquake Generators

• Focus & Epicenter; Magnitude and Intensity

• Seismic Waves and how it mapped the interior of the Earth.

• Associated Hazards (Ground rupture, Landslide, Tsunami,

Liquefaction)
• Hazards predictability, early warning systems, and response.

Geology for Civil Engineering

WHAT IS AN EARTHQUAKE?
An earthquake is a weak to violent shaking of
the ground produced by the sudden movement
of rock materials below the earth’s surface.

- PHIVOLCS
THE ELASTIC
REBOUND THEORY

HARRY FIELDING REID

Born May 18, 1859, Baltimore, Maryland, U.S.—died June 18, 1944,
Baltimore), American seismologist and glaciologist who in 1911
developed the elastic rebound theory of earthquake mechanics, still
accepted today.

He was first to develop a mechanism that explained how earthquakes

were a result of faulting and not the reverse. He wrote an analysis of
the 1906 San Francisco earthquake as part of the California State
Earthquake Investigation Commission report, Mechanics of the
Earthquake.
 THE ELASTIC
REBOUND THEORY

The elastic rebound theory is an explanation for how energy is spread during
earthquakes. It is the concept that earthquakes happen because stresses build
up, causing rock to bend elastically until slip on a fault occurs. This gradual
accumulation and release of stress and strain is now referred to as the "elastic
rebound theory" of earthquakes. Most earthquakes are the result of the sudden
elastic rebound of previously stored energy

In geology, the elastic rebound theory was the first theory to satisfactorily
explain earthquakes. Previously it was thought that ruptures of the surface were
the result of strong ground shaking rather than the converse suggested by this
theory.
 THE ELASTIC
REBOUND THEORY
Following the great 1906 San Francisco earthquake, Harry Reid
examined the displacement of the ground surface around the San
Andreas Fault. From his observations, he concluded that the
earthquake must have been the result of the elastic rebound of
previously stored elastic strain energy in the rocks on either side of the
fault.

The following diagram shows how a fence in California that straddles

the San Andreas fault illustrates elastic rebound. A straight fence is
built across the San Andreas fault. As the Pacific plate moves
northwest, it gradually distorts the fence. When the earthquake occurs
the distortion is released and the two parts of the fence are again
straight; but now there is an offset.
This picture, taken near Bolinas in Marin County by
G.K. Gilbert, shows a fence that was offset about 8.5
feet along the trace of the fault (from Steinbrugge
Collection of the UC Berkeley Earthquake Engineering
Research Center).
EARTHQUAKE
The Philippines is considered to be one of the most earthquake-prone
GENERATORS countries in the world and surrounded by numerous earthquake generators.

The Eurasian Plate (or South China Plate) subducts eastward beneath Luzon
Island along the Manila Trench, and the Philippine Sea Plate subducts
westward along the East Luzon Trench simultaneously. Because of this
complex tectonic setting, Luzon Island shows high seismic activity. The
Philippine Islands are sandwiched between two opposite subduction zones.
A long, inland Philippine Fault Zone (PFZ) lies parallel to the subduction
trenches. It is assumed to release the shear stress caused by the oblique
subduction of the ocean plates
EARTHQUAKE Geographically, Metropolitan Manila is located on Luzon Island. It is
surrounded by numerous earthquake generators, such as the Valley Fault
GENERATORS System (VFS), Philippine Fault, Lubang Fault, Manila Trench, and
Casiguran Fault. Among these faults, the Valley Fault System, which
surround the area, is considered to potentially cause the largest impact to the
Metropolitan Manila area should it generate a large maximum earthquake.

Recent studies show that the West Valley Fault has moved at least 4 times
and generated strong earthquakes within the last 1,400 years. The
approximate return period of these earthquakes is less than 500 years and no
event along the West Valley Fault is known after 17th century. This means
that the active phases of the Valley Fault is approaching. Many research
studies indicate that the estimated magnitude will be around 7 or more.
FOCUS & EPICENTER;
MAGNITUDE AND
INTENSITY
 FOCUS

FOCUS
An earthquake's focus is also called the INTERMEDIATE
hypocenter. It is in the hypocenters or foci 70-300 km below sea level
that the waves of the earthquake
originated.

SHALLOW DEEP
10-100 km below sea level more than 300 km
 EPICENTER

EPICENTER

The epicenter of an earthquake is the

point in the ground located directly above
the focus.

Also, serves as the geographical point of

reference in determining the relation of
the area and the actual location of the
earthquake’s occurrence.
 EPICENTER
• This would allow for the creation of a time-distance
• Epicenters are detected through seismographs. graph that would indicate the epicenter's proximity to
the seismic station.
• By locating the epicenter of the earthquake,
• Movements in the focus and epicenter are also triggered
seismologists can determine the origin of the
by different factors. Plate tectonics or volcanic
earthquake both above and below the crust.
eruptions cause the shaking at the focus.

• The scientists start with recording the time lapse • In locating the origin of the earthquake, seismologists
between the detection of the first P-wave and the first locate the epicenter. And when seismologists aim
first S-wave. to find the cause of the earthquake, they study the area
around the focus.
 MAGNITUDE & INTENSITY
MAGNITUDE
Is proportional to the energy released
by an earthquake at the focus. It is
calculated from earthquakes recorded
by an instrument called seismograph.
It is represented by Arabic Numbers
(e.g. 4.8, 9.0)
INTENSITY
Describes the degree of shaking
caused by an earthquake at a given
place and decreases with distance
from the earthquake epicenter.
It is represented by Roman Numerals
(e.g. II, IV, IX)
 In the Philippines, the intensity of an earthquake is determined using the
PHIVOLCS Earthquake Intensity Scale (PEIS)

INTENSITY SHAKING DESCRIPTION

SCALE

People can notice it when the conditions are right. Objects that are delicately
I Scarcely Perceptible balanced are slightly disturbed. Water in containers that still oscillates gently.

Felt by few individuals at rest indoors. Hanging objects swing slightly. Still Water
II Slightly Felt
in containers oscillates noticeably.

The vibration is similar to that of a light truck passing by. Some people complain
of dizziness and nausea. Objects hung from the ceiling swing mildly. The level of
III Weak oscillation in still water in containers is moderate.

Light sleepers are awakened. Vibration is felt like a passing of heavy truck.
IV Moderately Strong Hanging objects swing considerably. Dinner, plates, glasses, windows and doors
rattle. Floors and walls of wood framed buildings
INTENSITY
SHAKING DESCRIPTION
SCALE

creak. Standing motor cars may rock slightly. Liquids in containers are slightly
disturbed. Water in containers oscillate strongly. Rumbling sound may sometimes
be heard.

Many sleeping people are awakened. Some are frightened, some run outdoors.
Strong shaking and rocking felt throughout building. Hanging objects swing
violently. Dining utensils clatter and clink; some are broken. Small, light and
V Strong
unstable objects may fall or overturn. Liquids spill from filled open containers.
Standing vehicles rock noticeably. Shaking of leaves and twigs of trees are
noticeable.

Many people are frightened; many run outdoors. Some people lose their balance.
motorists feel like driving in flat tires. Heavy objects or furniture move or may be
shifted. Small church bells may ring. Wall plaster may crack. Very old or poorly
VI Very Strong built houses and man-made structures are slightly damaged though well-built
structures are not affected. Limited rockfalls and rolling boulders occur in hilly to
mountainous areas and escarpments. Trees are noticeably shaken.
INTENSITY
SHAKING DESCRIPTION
SCALE

Most people are frightened and run outdoors. People find it difficult to stand in
upper floors. Heavy objects and furniture overturn or topple. Big church bells may
ring. Old or poorly- built structures suffer considerable damage. Some well-built
VII Destructive structures are slightly damaged. Some cracks may appear on dikes, fishponds, road
surface, or concrete hollow block walls. Limited liquefaction, lateral spreading and
landslides are observed. Trees are shaken strongly.

People are panicky. People find it difficult to stand even outdoors. Many well-built
buildings are considerably damaged. Concrete dikes and foundation of bridges are
destroyed by ground settling or toppling. Railway tracks are bent or broken.
Tombstones may be displaced, twisted or overturned. Utility posts, towers and
monuments mat tilt or topple. Water and sewer pipes may be bent, twisted or
VIII Very Destructive
broken. Liquefaction and lateral spreading cause man- made structure to sink, tilt
or topple. Numerous landslides and rockfalls occur in mountainous and hilly areas.
Boulders are thrown out from their positions particularly near the epicenter.
Fissures and
INTENSITY
SHAKING DESCRIPTION
SCALE

faults rapture may be observed. Trees are violently shaken. Water splash or stop
over dikes or banks of rivers.

People are forcibly thrown to ground. Many cry and shake with fear. Most
buildings are totally damaged. bridges and elevated concrete structures are toppled
or destroyed. Numerous utility posts, towers and monument are tilted, toppled or
broken. Water sewer pipes are bent, twisted or broken. Landslides and liquefaction
IX Devastating with lateral spreadings and sandboils are widespread. the ground is distorted into
undulations. Trees are shaken very violently with some toppled or broken.
Boulders are commonly thrown out. River water splashes violently on slops over
dikes and banks.

Practically all man-made structures are destroyed. Massive landslides and

liquefaction, large scale subsidence and uplifting of landforms and many ground
Completely Devastating
X fissures are observed. Changes in river courses and destructive seiches in large
lakes occur. Many trees are toppled, broken and uprooted.
 SEISMIC WAVES AND
HOW IT MAPPED THE
INTERIOR OF THE
EARTH.

A seismic wave is an elastic wave

generated by an impulse such as an
earthquake or an explosion. Seismic waves
may travel either along or near the earth's
surface (Rayleigh and Love waves) or
through the earth's interior (P and S
waves).
 SEISMIC WAVE MOTIONS
Body Waves: Surface Waves:

PRIMARY SECONDARY RAYLEIGH

LOVE WAVES
(P) WAVES (S) WAVES WAVES

• The first seismic • Body waves that • Surface waves that • Surface waves that
wave detected by oscillate the ground move in an elliptical move parallel to the
seismographs. perpendicular to the motion, producing Earth’s surface and
• Compressional direction of wave both a vertical and perpendicular to the
waves (push and pull travel. horizontal component direction of wave
motion, much like • Shear waves (sideways of motion in the propagation.
sound). motion). direction of wave
• Able to move • They travel about 1.7 propagation.
through both liquid times slower than P
and solid rock. waves.
 HOW IT MAPPED THE INTERIOR OF
THE EARTH?
Tracking the movement of these waves provide seismologists with information about the composition of
the Earth’s interior. The Longitudinal motion of P waves can pass through solids, liquids, and gases,
while liquids and gases prevent the shearing motion of S waves.

As seismic waves travel, seismograms can detect variations in their speed. These changes provide clues
about the composition, density, and temperature of the medium the wave is passing through. For example,
waves move slower when passing through hot magma, such as mantle plumes and hotspots, than they do
when passing through colder subduction zones, locations where one tectonic plate slides beneath another.
ASSOCIATED HAZARD
POSED BY
EARTHQUAKE
EARTHQUAKE HAZARDS

Can be hazardous to humans and property in a variety of ways.

Earthquake hazards arise from a combination of factors such as the
size of the earthquake, distance to the epicentre, the underlying
material and geologic structures, and building construction.
 Earthquake Hazards
1) GROUND SHAKING
• The destructive effects of earthquakes are
due mainly to intense GROUND SHAKING
or vibration.
• Low and tall buildings, towers and posts
may tilt, split, topple or collapse, foundation
of roads, railroad tracks and ridges may
break, water pipes and other utility
installations may get dislocated, dams and
similar structures may break and cause
flooding, and other forms of mass
movement may be generated.
2) GROUND RUPTURE
• Is a deformation on the ground that
marks the intersection of the fault plane
with the earth's surface.
• Most common manifestation is a long
fissure extending from a few kilometres
to tens of kilometres, although ground
rupture may also occur as a series of
discontinuous crack, mounds or
depressions.
3) TSUNAMI
• Are giant waves generated only by
submarine earthquakes.
• Tsunami occur when earthquake is
shallow seated, and strong enough to
displaced parts of the seabed and
disturb the mass of the water over it.
 Earthquake Hazards

4) LIQUEFACTION 5) LANDSLIDE 6) FIRE

• Process where particles of loosely • Downward movement of slope • Earthquake can cause fires by
consolidated and water-saturated materials either slowly or quickly. damaging electrical power or gas line.
deposits of fine sand are rearranged It may be difficult to stop the spread
into more compact state. once it had started in the event of
water mains rupturing and loss of
• Water and sediments are squeezed out pressure.
towards the surface in the form water
and sand fountaining and thus creating
a condition resembling ‘quicksand’.
 Earthquake Hazards

7) FLOOD
8) HUMAN IMPACT
• An overflow of any amount of water
• Earthquake may cause injury and loss
that reaches land.
of lives. It may also bring diseases
due to lack of necessities aftermath.
EARTHQUAKE PREDICTION
Scientists are a long way from
being able to predict
earthquakes. A good prediction
must be accurate as to where
an earthquake will occur, when
it will occur, and at what
magnitude it will be so that
people can evacuate.
Where an earthquake will occur is
the easiest feature to predict.
Scientists know that earthquakes
take place at plate boundaries and
tend to happen where they’ve
occurred before.
Folklore tells of animals Seismicity is the study of
behaving erratically just before how often earthquakes occur
an earthquake. in a particular area, which
types of earthquakes occur
there, and why.
EARLY WARNING
SYSTEM
Earthquake Early Warning (EEW) systems use earthquake
science and the technology of monitoring systems to alert
devices and people when shaking waves generated by an
earthquake are expected to arrive at their location.
 RESPONSE
Earthquake response activities include rapid assessment of landscape change
(including mapping and measuring the locations and amount of offset caused
by faults rupturing the Earth’s surface), identifying ground failure and
liquefaction, and mapping landslides. On-the-ground investigations are
complemented by airborne surveys, rapid 3D laser scanning, and rapid
acquisition and analysis of remote imagery to study inaccessible regions.
DAILY REMINDER:
REFERENCES
Elastic-rebound theory (harvard.edu)

https://courses.seas.harvard.edu/climate/eli/Courses/EPS281r/Sources/Earthquake-cycle/1-Elastic-rebound%20theory%20Wiki
pedia.pdf

https://www.britannica.com/science/elastic-rebound-theory

https://ndrrmc.gov.ph/attachments/article/1472/Earthquake_Impact_Reduction_StudyVolume_1.PDF

https://socratic.org/questions/how-do-scientists-use-seismic-waves-to-map-the-earth-s-interior

http://www.differencebetween.net/science/nature/difference-between-focus-and-epicenter/

https://www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/index.php/earthquake/earthquake-intensity-scale

https://www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/index.php/earthquake/introduction-to-earthquake

https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/can-you-predict-earthquakes?qt-news_science_products=0#qt-news_science_products

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/geophysical/chapter/earthquake-prediction/

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/geo/chapter/reading-seismicity-and-earthquake-prediction-2/

https://www.usgs.gov/natural-hazards/earthquake-hazards/early-warningshakealert?qt-science_support_page_related_con=0#qt
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https://www.usgs.gov/natural-hazards/earthquake-hazards/science/earthquake-response?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-scienc
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