GeES 1001

Instructor: Gezahegne Gebremeskel

Msc in Physical Geography, Kharkov State University (Ukraine)

Msc in Urban Environmental Management and Development:

Erasmus University (The Netherlands)
 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1. Geography: Definition, Scope and Themes

1.1.1. Meaning of Geography

1.1.2. The Scope, Approaches and Themes of Geography

1.2. Location, Shape and Size of Ethiopia and the Horn

1.2.1. Location of Ethiopia
1.2.2. Size of Ethiopia
1.2.3. The shape of Ethiopia and its Implication

1.3. Basic Skills of Map Reading

 1.1. Geography: Definition, Scope and Themes

The Chapter deals with the meaning, scope, themes, and approaches of Geography;
Location, shape, and size of Ethiopia in relation to the Horn of Africa;
Instills the basic map reading and interpretation skills.

Objectives
The principal objective of the chapter are intended:

Explain the themes of Geography.

Explicate the implications of location, shape and size of Ethiopia and the Horn on
the physical environment, socioeconomic and political aspects.
Acquire basic skills of map reading.
1.1.1. Meaning of Geography

The Definition of Geography

Geography is the scientific study of the Earth that describes and analyses spatial and
temporal variations of physical, biological and human phenomena, and their
interrelationships and dynamism over the surface of the Earth.

1.1.2. The Scope, Approaches and Themes of Geography

Scope: the scope of Geography is the surface of the Earth, which is the very thin
zone that is the interface of the atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and
biosphere, which provides the habitable zone in which humans are able to live.
Approaches and Themes of Geography: Geography can be approached by
considering two continuums: a human-physical continuum and a topical regional
continuum. The topical (systematic) fields of Geography view particular
categories of physical or human phenomena as distributed over the Earth while
Regional Geography is concerned with the associations within regions of all or
some of the elements and their interrelationships.
The Thematic Areas of Geography

Geography incorporates five thematic areas.

Location;
Place;
Human-environment interaction;
Movement; and
Region

A. Location:

Location is defined as a particular place or position. Most studies of geography

begin with the mention of this theme of geography. Location can be of two types:
absolute location and relative location. In the former case, the location of a place is
defined by its latitude and longitude or Universal Transfer Mercator’s (UTM)
coordinate system to show the exact address. 
 Thematic Areas of Geography cntd.

B. Place
Place refers to the physical and human aspects of a location.;

theme of geography is associated with toponym (the name of a place), site (the
description of the features of the place), and situation (the environmental conditions of
the place);

Each place in the world has its unique characteristics expressed in terms of
landforms, hydrology, biogeography, pedology, characteristics and size of its human
population,  and the distinct human cultures. The concept of “place” a aids geographers
to compare and contrast two places on Earth. 

c. Human-Environment Interaction
Human interaction with the environment has three aspects:
Dependency;
Adaptation;
Modification.
1.3 Applications of Remote Sensing

Geology and Hydrogeology

Geology; Mineral Prospecting
 Early Warning and Disaster Preparedness
• AVHRR HPRT Hurricane Diane 
Early Warning and Disaster Preparedness

Flood Prediction Drought Prediction

 Flood damage on Standing Crops
Pre Flood – 17 July 2006 Post Flood – 09 Aug 2006

Sukkur
Environmental Degradation Analysis
Shore Recession of Lake Abijata

Attributes of Area Features

1. In 1986 = 164.21 Km2

2. In 2006 = 111.30 Km2

3. In 2011 = 126.4 Km2

 Environmental Degradation Analysis

Row Class Names Area Color

Background 30436.4  
1 Green spaces 3846.51  
2 Dense settlement 7255.44  
3 Settlement 7385.31  
4 Agriculture 6986.61  
5 Bare land 4088.07  
 Environmental Degradation Analysis

Row Class Names Area Color

0 Background 30436.4  
1 Green spaces 5468.22  
2 Dense settlement 6485.13  
3 Settlement 7501.77  
4 Agriculture 6475.14  
5 Bare land 3631.68  
Attribute Table and Radar Diagram of Green Space loss
Name of the Land Cover
№ Type Area in 1986 Area in 2014 Difference
Unit in ha
1 Green spaces 5468.22 3846.51 - 1621.71
2 Built up Area 13986.90 14640.75 + 653.85
3 Agriculture & Exposed soil 6475.14 6986.61 + 511.47
4 Bare land 3631.68 4088.07 + 456.39
Attribute Table and Radar Diagram of Green Space loss

Water erosion Wind erosion

Vegetation degradation Salinization

LAND USE-COVER CHANGE STUDY
Expansion of Urban Areas
Deforestation
 Thematic Areas of Geography cntd.

D. Movement:
Movement exhibits different aspects, some of which includes the following:
Movement entails to the translocation of human beings, their goods, and their
ideas from one end of the planet to another.

The physical movement of people allowed the human race to inhabit all the
continents and islands of the world.

The transportation of goods from one place on the Earth to another;

The flow of ideas that allows the unification of the human civilization and
promotes its growth and prosperity. 
Thematic Areas of Geography cntd.

Region

A region is a geographic area having distinctive characteristics that distinguishes

itself from adjacent unit(s) of space;

A region can be characterized ;

By homogeneity in terms of a certain phenomenon (soil, temperature, rainfall, or

other cultural elements like language, religion, and economy).

It can also be a functional or nodal region characterized by functional

interrelationships in a spatial system defined by the linkages binding particular
phenomena. 
 1.2. Location, Shape and Size of Ethiopia and the Horn, Cntd.,

The Horn of Africa, a region of eastern Africa, is a narrow tip that protrudes into the
northern Indian Ocean, separating it from the Gulf of Aden. It is the easternmost extension
of African land defined as the region that is home to the countries of Djibouti, Eritrea,
Ethiopia, and Somalia, whose cultures have been linked throughout their long history.

Although the countries of the region share many common features, there is also
great diversity among them, rendering each country unique in many respects. In terms of
size, Ethiopia is the largest of all the Horn of African countries, while Djibouti is the smallest.

The Horn contains such  diverse areas as the highlands of the Ethiopian Plateau, the
Ogaden desert, and the Eritrean and Somali coasts. Its coasts are washed by the Red sea,
the Gulf of Aden, and the Indian ocean, and it has long been in contact with the Arabian
peninsula and southwestern Asia. 
1.2.1. Location of Ethiopia

The location of a place is expressed in two ways:

A. Absolute Location (Astronomical Location) .- Is expressed in terms of Geographic

coordinates i.e., Latitude (), Longitude () or UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator)
in terms of X and Y.

B. Relative Location.- Relative location expresses the location of countries or places with
reference to the location of other countries (vicinal), landmasses or water bodies.

For example: The absolute Location of Ethiopia is:

Latitude (Northing) between 327’40” N (Moyale) to 14 53’45” N (the tip of Bademe).
Longitude (Easting) 3310’11” E (Akobo) to 4800’00” E the tip of Ogaden.
1.2. Location, Shape and Size of Ethiopia and the Horn

33 00’11”
 The Relative Location of Ethiopia

Vicinal location In relation to water bodies & land

masses

Sudan to the west and northwest In the Horn of Africa

South Sudan to southwest Southwest of the Arabian Peninsula 

Djibouti to the east South of Europe

Somalia to the east and southeast Northwest of the Indian Ocean

Eritrea to the north and northeast In the Nile Basin

Kenya to the south

The Location of Ethiopia and its Neighbors
The implications of the location of Ethiopia

A. Climate: The fact that Ethiopia is located between 30N and 150N (between the
Equator and Tropic of Cancer) implies that the country has a tropical climate,
though modified by its altitude. The location of Ethiopia relative to the Indian
Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean and the African and Asian landmass has also various
bearings on the climate of Ethiopia. 
B. Socio-cultural: Ethiopia is one of the earliest recipients of the major world religions
namely Christianity, Islam and Judaism due to its proximity to the Middle East,
which was the origin of these religions. The linguistic and other cultural
relationships, which Ethiopia shares with its neighbors, reflect the influence of
location.
C. Political: The political history of Ethiopia has been considerably influenced by:
Geopolitical considerations of superpowers. Adjacency to the Red Sea (a major
global trade route). The Middle East geopolitical paradigms.

As a result, Ethiopia has been exposed for external invasions in a number of

times; though the country resisted foreign intervention and remains free of
external domination. 
The Agro-ecological Zones of Ethiopia
1.2.2. Size of Ethiopia

Ethiopia with a total area of approximately 1,106,000 square kilometers is the 8th
largest country in Africa and 25th in the World.

It extends about 1,639 kilometers East-West, and 1,577 kilometers North-South.

About 0.7% of the country is covered by water bodies.

The size of Ethiopia also affects both the natural and human environment of the
country. The advantages and disadvantages of the size of Ethiopia are indicated in
Table 2.
 Table 2. Advantages and disadvantages of Ethiopia’s large size

Advantages Disadvantages

Possess diverse agro ecological zones Demands greater capital to construct

infrastructural facilities

Variety of natural resources Requires large army to protect its territory 

Own extensive arable land Difficult for effective administration 

Have larger population size Difficult for socio-economic integration

Home for diverse cultures

Greater depth in defense external invasion

1.2.3. The shape of Ethiopia and its Implication

Countries of the World have different kinds of shape that can be divided into five
main categories: compact, fragmented, elongated, perforated, and protruded. These
shapes have implications on defense, administration and economic integration within a
country. Whether some kind of shape is advantageous to a country or not, however,
depends on many other factors.

A. Compact shape countries:

The distance from the geographic centre of the state to any of the borders does
not vary greatly. It is easier for defense, socioeconomic and cultural integration. 

B. Fragmented shape countries:

They are divided from their other parts by either water, land or other countries.

C. Elongated shape countries:

They are geographically long and relatively narrow like Chile.
The shape of Ethiopia and its Implication, Cntd,

D. Perforated shape countries:

A country that completely surrounds another country like the Republic of South
Africa.

E. Protrude shape countries:

Countries that have one portion that is much more elongated than the rest of
the country like Myanmar and Eritrea. 

Measure of Compactness
How much the shape of a country deviates from a circular shape is the Index of
compactness.

There are four most commonly used measures of compactness. These are:
 There are four most commonly used measures of compactness

A. The ratio of area of country to its boundary length: Area-Boundary ratio.

The higher the A/B ratio, the greater the degree of compactness.

B. The ratio of boundary length of a country to the circumference of a circle

having the same area as the country itself: Boundary-Circumference ratio. It
measures how far the boundary of a country approximates the
circumference of a circle of its own size. Therefore, the nearer the ratio to 1
the more compact the country is.

C. The ratio of the area of the country to the circumference of the smallest
inscribing circle: Area-Circumference ratio It compares the area of the country
with the circumference of a circle that passes touching the extreme points on the
boundary of the country. The higher the A/C ratio, the greater the degree of
compactness.
 The Comparative Spatial Extent of Ethiopia

The ratio of the actual area of a country to the smallest possible inscribing circle: Area-
Area (A/A’) ratio. The area of the inscribing circle is the area of the smallest possible
circle whose circumference passes through the extreme points on the boundary. Half-
length of the longest distance between two extreme points gives radius of the inscribing
circle. The nearer the ratio to 1, the more compact the country is.

Country Area(km2) Boundary (km) A/B ratio B/C ratio A/C ratio

Ethiopia 1,106,000 5,260 210.27 1.41 296.61

Djibouti 22,000 820 26.83 1.56 41.83

Eritrea 117,400 2,420 48.51 1.99 96.83

Kenya 582,644 3,600 161.85 1.33 215.28

Somalia 637,657 5,100 125.03 1.80 225.22

1.3 Map Reading and Interpretation

Map definition. According to the definition given by the International Cartographic Association (ICA),
“A map is a symbolized representation of geographical reality, representing selected features or
characteristics, resulting from the creative effort of its author’s execution of choices, and is designed
for use when spatial relationships are of primary relevance”.

An alternative definition of a map may be presented as a scaled graphical representation of a three

dimensional real world on to a two dimensional plane or paper. So long as it impossible to capture
all the complexity found in the real world, representation of features on map is always done through
abstraction of the real world.

Cartography - is the art and science of expressing the known physical features of the earth
graphically by maps and charts.
 
Why we need Generalization?

 It is usually impossible to represent all features in their true size on maps, therefore they must be
generalized. This is simply because of the impossibility of reading such a map even with a magnifying
glass. To be readable, it is imperative to represent them with conventional sign and symbols.
 
1.3.1 Functions of Maps

We can use maps for different purposes, amongst which that merit attention are some
of the following:

Identifies the Area Mapped;

For locating places;

Represent human and physical features,

Indicates what features represent;

For converting map distance in to ground distance;

For the measurement of direction.

 
1.3.2 The Essential Elements of a Map

A map ought to have seven essentials

A. Title This is analogous to a book's title where the title tells what that it
conveys.

B. Legend Its main use is to identify and interpret what the symbols represent
on the map.

C. Grid Lines This contains Geographic (Latitudes and Longitudes in degrees) or

Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM in the case of Ethiopia).

D. Symbols These are the different signs denoting specific features on maps.

E. Scale A Scale shows the relationship that exists map and ground distance.
The Essential Elements of a Map, Cntd,

F. North arrow: This represents the magnetic north of a compass (True north, Grid
north and magnetic declination) are also represented as part of marginal
information.
 
G. Publishers Information: name, year of publication in some cases disclaimers if
boundaries are not demarcated.
Face of a Map and Marginal Information of Maps (Marginalia)
A Map has two parts, namely Face of a map and Marginal Information.
A) Face of a Map: This part contains the pertinent information that ought to be
depicted, such as relief, vegetation type, cultural features (roads, settlement,
mosques, churches, railways, air ports etc.) Symbols like spot height, bench marks,
trig points etc.

B) Marginal information : Is all information outside the marginal line. Marginal

Information are: Title of the map, sheet number, scale, Adjoining sheets, Bar Scale, Year

A Map Layout contains neat line and marginal line.

The space between neat line and marginal line is called border line.
Neat line is a line which bounds map coverage.
Marginal line is a thick outer most line which also bounds map coverage about one cm.
away from neat line of publication, Author, Legend or key, Type of projection, North Arrow,
Magnetic Declination (Variation), etc.
Marginal Information of Maps (Marginalia)
Marginal Information of Maps (Marginalia)
1.3.2 Scale of a Map

Scale of a Map.- It is the ratio or fraction between the distance on a map and the
corresponding distance on the (ground) i.e., surface of the earth

Note that: As the denominator of the representative fraction gets

larger and the ratio gets smaller, the scale of the map
decreases.
The scale of a map can be given in three ways, namely Scale bar (Graphical
Scale), Representative Fraction (R.F) and Scale Statement.

.
Representation of Scale of a Map

To determine a straight-line distance between two points on a map, lay a straight-edged

piece of paper on the map so that the edge of the paper touches both points and
extends past them. Make a tick mark on the edge of the paper at each point.
Three Types of Scale of a Map Representations

A. Graphical Scale :The graphic scale also called scale bar is divided into two
parts. To the right of the zero, the scale is marked in full units of measure and is
called the primary scale. To the left of the zero, the scale is divided into tenths and
is called the extension scale. Most maps have three or more graphic scales, each
using a different unit of measure. While using the graphic scale, be sure to use the
correct scale for the unit of measure desired.

Figure 100 Bar scale (graphical scale) incorporating R.F and Scale statement
B. Scale Statement (Verbal Scale)

In Scale Statement, as the name implies, the scale of a map is expressed in a stated or
verbal form. For instance I cm represents ½ km is equivalent to saying 1 cm on the
map corresponds (represents) ½ km on the ground.

For instance if you plan a route with a total distance of 20 cm on the map, that
would imply that you'll be traveling 10 km on the ground.

C. Representative Fraction

The scale of a map can be represented in the form of a ratio or fraction. For
instance , 1: 250 000 (1/250 000) indicates that 1 cm on the map represents 2.5 km
on the ground.
1.4 Representation of Features on Topographic Maps

Map users must know how to determine:

Height of a given location on standard topographic maps;

Locations of points on a map, measure distances and azimuths:
Identify symbols on a map;
Relief of areas
Physical and cultural features are represented.

To do this, they must first understand how the map maker represented the elevation,
relief and the symbols used on the given map.

The reference or start point of a vertical measurement of elevation on a standard

map is the datum plane or mean sea level(msl) the point half way between high
and low tides.

Elevation: is the vertical height just below or above the mean sea level.
Geoidal, Ellipsoidal and Orthometric Heights
1.5 Methods of Depicting Relief

A. Layer Tinting.  Layer tinting is a method Layer tinting is a method of showing

relief by applying color.
Methods of Depicting Relief Cntd,

B. Shaded Relief.- Relief shading indicates relief by a a shadow effect achieved by tone
and colors that results in the darkening of one side of terrain features, such as hills and
Ridges.
Methods of Depicting Relief Cntd,

C. Contour Lines. A contour line represents an imaginary line on the ground,

above or below sea level.
There are three types of contour lines.
Index contour.- These are thick lines at regular intervals known as index contour
lines.
Methods of Depicting Relief Cntd,

Intermediate.- Contour lines falling between the index contour lines.

Supplementary. These contour lines resemble dashes. They show changes in elevation
of at least one-half the contour interval.

Contour lines show:

Elevation;
Steepness of slopes;
Direction of water flows:
Mountains, ridges, valleys;
Spot Heights: exact elevations;
Bench Marks: Shows exact elevations with concrete brass pillars;
Depressions: Dip and features like crater lakes.

 
Characteristics of Contour

Source:staff.aub.edu.lb
Exception of a contour
Contours Representing Cliff
Contour Interval and Interpolation

Contour Interval (Vertical Interval)

Contour Interval or Vertical Interval usually denoted as VI is the height
difference between two contour lines.

It is derived by subtraction of two parallel contours usually the highest

minus the lowest contour.

Contour Interpolation

To determine the height of a point between two contour lines, we apply

mathematical interpolation.
Contour Interval and Interpolation, Cntd,
Interpolation
Representation of Features on Map
Representation of Features on Map
1.6 Colors on Topographic Maps
Classification of Maps

1. Based on their purpose, maps are classified in to:

A. General Purpose maps;
B. Single purpose, but usually it is called as Thematic map.

General Purpose maps: are prepared to provide a wide range of information about
different features of an area, such as height information represented by contours,
spot heights, roads, rivers, vegetal covers etc.

Specific-purpose maps.- are detailed and they have full information to the specified
map. Specific-purpose maps are often are called thematic maps or topical maps.
They usually show a high level of detail and have a deep focus on their subjects.
Cadastral map is an example of a thematic map. A cadastral map show property
boundaries and areas with identification numbers (Unique Ids) and have legal
significance in land registration for land taxation.
Classification of Maps According to Scale

A. Large Scale Maps - Such maps depict areas that are small, but exhibit greater details. For
instance, 1:25 000 scale is a large scale map.
Cadastral maps both urban and rural cadastral purpose to show exactly parcels, ownership with
immovable properties especially building, city master plans with scales 1:2,000 and 1:5,000 is
Large scale.
 
B. Medium Scale Maps.- Medium scale maps are estimated between1: 50,000 to 1:250,000.
Medium- scale maps cover wider areas than large scale maps. But it covers smaller areas than
small- scale maps. They are also able to present more detailed information than small-scale
maps. But they less detailed than large scale ones.

C. `Small Scale Maps.- Small scale maps are estimated less than 1: 250,000. Small-scale maps
cover wider areas than large and medium scale maps.
`Scale that less than 1:250,000;
`Cover large Are as;
Contain less- detailed information.
Types of Maps

(1)   Planimetric Map. This is a map that presents only the horizontal positions for the
features represented. It is distinguished from a topographic map by the omission of
relief, normally represented by contour lines. Sometimes, it is called a line map.

(2)   Topographic Map. According to Loxton, “Topographic maps show the visible surface
features of land areas or as many of them as the scale permits plus some invisible details
such as place names, descriptions, boundaries etc.” (Loxton John, 1980). Topographic
maps not only show Planimetric positions, but also indicate relief.
(3)   Ortho-Photomap. This is a reproduction of an aerial photograph upon which grid
lines, marginal data, place names, route numbers, important elevations, boundaries, and
approximate scale and direction have been added.
(4)   Photomosaick. This is an assembly of aerial photographs that is commonly
called a mosaic in topographic usage. Mosaics are useful when time does not permit
the compilation of a more accurate map. The accuracy of a mosaic depends on the
method employed in its preparation and may vary from simply a good pictorial effect
of the ground to that of a planimetric map.
Types of Maps

(6)    City Map. This is a topographic map (usually at 1: 2,000 scale, sometimes up to
1:5,000), showing the details of a city. It delineates streets and shows street names,
important buildings, and other elements of the urban landscape important to
navigation operations in urban terrain. The scale of a city map depends on the
importance and size of the city, density of detail, and available intelligence
information.

(7) Charts. Are maps used for navigation, For instance the aeronautical chart for
Ethiopian Air lines flight directions.

(8) Plans. Depict small areas at a larger scale. Plans do not need cartographic
projection. Moreover, they usually do not exhibit relief information.
1.7 How to determine the gradient between two Points
Determination of a Gradient Cntd,

Let us determine the Gradient between points A and B

Scale = 1: 10 000

1. The contour interval is 5 m

2. The scale of the map is 1: 10 000
3. Measure the direct distance between points A and B = 4cm, as shown on the
Figure.
 4. Apply the Gradient formula to determine the gradient.
5. The height of point A is 140 m and point B is 180 m.
6. The Rise is the difference between point A and point B. Thus 180 m – 140 m = 40 m.
7. The Run is the direct distance between point A and point B which is 4 cm. We have
to convert map distance in to ground distance = Thus, 4 cm x scale of the map i.e.
4 cm x 10 000 cm = 40 000 cm.
Procedures

Determine the Vertical Interval (VI) or Contour Interval;

Determine the direct distance between two given points;

Convert the map distance in to actual ground distance;

Use the gradient formula to compute the gradient;

So long as Gradient is a ratio, we must multiply both the numerator and the
denominator by the numerator.
 Therefore, the Gradient is 1: 10

Determination of Gradient Cntd,

Delete two zeros in the denominator, thus becomes 400 m.

Therefore, the Gradient is 1: 10

1.8 How to Compute the Slope of a Terrain?

Slope: Is the measure or the degree of inclination of a feature relative to the

horizontal surface. Slope is measure by an instrument called clinometers .
Slope is measure by an instrument called clinometers (Tilt meter).
 Measure the Vertical Distance as shown on the Figure is 122
b= 590 m and a= 380 m VD (Vertical Distance) = b –a VD= 590- 380 = 210 m

Measure the Horizontal Distance; 3 000 meters.

Types of Slopes on topographic maps

A. Gentle Slopes.- Contour lines exhibit a uniform without any abrupt

changes will be evenly spaced and relatively wide apart.
 
B. Steep Slopes - In the case of Steep slopes, contour lines are very
close to each other, see Figure.
 
Concave Slopes.- Concave slopes on topographic maps can be
identified as having contour lines very close together at the top
and getting wider and wider at the bottom.
 
Convex Slopes. Are widely space contours at the top and close to
each other at the bottom.

 
Concave and Convex Slope
 CHPATE 2 THE GEOLOGY OF ETHIOPIA
The definition of Geology.
Geology is the scientific study of the earth, its composition, structure,
physical properties, history and the attendant processes that shape it.

The two principles that must be considered while studying geology.

A) The Principle of Uniformitarianism;
B) The Principle of Catastrophism.

C) The Principle of Uniformitarianism (James Hutton – 1785):- States

that Earth’s geological processes acted in the same way and same
intensity in the past as they do in the present time and that such
uniformity is sufficient to account for all geological changes.
This principle can be summarized as “The present is the key to the
past”.
CHPATE 2 THE GEOLOGY OF ETHIOPIA
B) The Principle of Catastrophism (Sir Charles Lyell):- States that
the Earth is largely been shaped by sudden, short lived, violent
events, possibly world wide scope.
Much of the geological knowledge is obtained through
inferences from clues that can be observed and measured.

Clues can be observed directly from

• rocks and fossils and landforms of the Earth’s surface.
Clues may be measured using
• Geophysics e.g. studying earthquakes waves which can
penetrate deep beneath the earth surface.
• Geochemistry analysis of the detailed compositions of
rock which can give as to which their origins
• Geochronology (methods of finding ages of rocks, usually
from the radioactive elements they contain).
 Wegener
1880-1930

earthobservatory.nasa.gov

Alfred Wegener first proposed the theory of

continental drift.
 Continental drift was Wegener’s theory
that all continents had once been joined
together in a single landmass and have
drifted apart since.
 Wegener named this supercontinent
Pangaea.
 Wegener’s theory was rejected by
scientists because he could not explain
what force pushes or pulls continents.
Continental drift video clip
 Fit of Continents
Across the Atlantic

Mountain ranges in
South America line
up exactly with
those in Africa!
 http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/images/history/fossils3.gif

Notice how fossils lined up across continents!

 Discovery of Sea-Floor Spreading

Sea floor spreading video clip

Amazing Facts: Did you know...

...that India was once in the Southern Hemisphere

connected to Antarctica?
...that North America was once surrounded by warm,
tropical seas?
...that Africa was once covered by glaciers, which were
kilometers in thickness?
...that the Sahara desert was once a tropical rain forest?
 An example of the proof for changing climate:

At one time, the

area that is New
Mexico was
below the
equator!

As North America has drifted to different latitudes, changing climates were

experienced. This shows the changes in the state of New Mexico.
 He could not find the force that was
causing the continents to drift.
Because of this, he could not convince
anyone that continents could move.
He died in Greenland on an expedition.
At the time of his death, no one believed
his hypothesis!
Technology developed during the 1940’s
changed all that!
 The Geologic Processes: Endogenic and Exogenic Forces
• The internal processes (endogenic) - volcanic activity and
all the tectonic processes include
– folding, faulting,
– orogenesis (mountain building), and
– epeirogenesis (slow rising and sinking of the landmass).
Resulted in the building of structural and volcanic features like
plateaus, rift valleys, Block Mountains, volcanic mountains, etc.
• The external (exogenic) processes are geomorphic processes.
– Include weathering, mass transfer, erosion and deposition.
– modifying, roughening and lowering down the volcanic and
structural landforms.
• Both Processes - Changed Earth's materials, structures, processes
and organisms overtime:
• The landmass of Ethiopia, as elsewhere, is the result of the combined effect of
both processes
 The Geological Time Scale and Age Dating Techniques
These geological time divisions basically differ from each
other in such characteristics as:
the relative position of land and sea,
the kind of climate and
the kind of animal and plant life that developed and existed during
that Era or period.
• The geological history is divided in to Eras. Each Era into
periods. Each Period into Epoch. Eon is the largest period
• The Eras are given names indicating what life existed,
• Precambrian Era - the span of time before life appeared
• the Paleozoic Era (ancient life) is the age of invertebrates,
• the Mesozoic Era (the middle life) is the age of reptiles while
• the Cenozoic Era (recent life) is the age of mammals.
• The Earth is believed to have been formed ~ 4.5B years ago
• the earliest forms of life originated ~3.5B years ago.
Age Dating Techniques
A) Relative Dating:- Uses geological evidence to assign comparative
age of fossils. Two ways to determine the ages of rocks:
The remnant fossils on a rock to determine the geological time
period.
Rock strata i.e. the young overlays the old.

B) Absolute Dating:- This is also called the Radiometric Method.

This method presupposed the radioactive of radioactive
elements such as Uranium, Plutonium Thorium etc. As this
element decay, they form different element with isotopes.

Carbon 14 Technique:- As organisms die, carbon 14

disintegrates at a half time of 5730 years.
Potassium-Argon Technique:- Potassium 40 is abundant in
micas, feldspar and horn blend.
2.4 Geological Processes and the Resulting Landforms of Ethiopia
2.4.1 The Precambrian Era (4.5 billion to 600 million years ago)
It is the oldest in the geological history of the Earth.
The main geological event is orogenesis (mountain building).
The land was subject to intensive folding, intrusive activity.
During and after orogenesis, long period of denudation -
resulted in peneplain formations.
In the later Mesozoic and Cenozoic Era the peneplains were
overlain by younger rocks.
The Precambrian rocks were subject to metamorphic
processes forming the ‘basement complex’.
The rocks in b/n sedimentary and intrusive igneous rocks, due
to heat created pressure, metamorphosed in to crystalline
rocks.
The Precambrian basement complex account for about 25%
the land mass of Ethiopia.
2.4 Geological Processes and the Resulting Landforms of Ethiopia
The Precambrian Basement complex are exposed in:
A) In the northern part: Western lowlands, parts of northern and central
Tigray
B) the Western part: Gambella, Benishangul-Gumuz, Western Gojam,
Western Welega, Illubabor and Abay Gorge.
C) The Southern part: Guji, southern Omo, southern Bale and Borena.
D) The Eastern part: Eastern Harerge.
2.4.2 The Paleozoic Era (600 million- 225 million years ago)
The Paleozoic Era has a span of 375 million years.
The principal process of Paleozoic Era is persistent denudation reduced the
gigantic mountains of Precambrian Era to peneplains.
Peneplains with undulating feature and remaining peaks (inselbergs)
were formed here and there.
Sediments were transported to south and eastwards to form continental
(Africa) and marine deposits.
Paleozoic rocks are rare in Ethiopia because of the limited deposition.
2.4 Geological Processes and the Resulting Landforms of Ethiopia
2.4.3 The Mesozoic Era (225- 70 million years ago
The Mesozoic Era has a time span of 155 million years.
The main geological event in Mesozoic Era is
transgression and regression of sea from southeast
(Indian ocean).
Epeirogenesis process took place in which the land mass
at intervals uplifted and sunk. This process affected
African and Arabian land mass. It is known by the term
the ‘Arabian swell’.
In the Triassic period (225 million years ago), the land
subsided and the transgression of the sea invaded
Somalia and the Ogaden region of Ethiopia and
advanced north west followed by marine deposits.
2.4 Geological Processes and the Resulting Landforms of Ethiopia
In the Jurassic period the sea deposited mud (shale), gypsum, lime
& marine life over the peneplain Precambrian rocks. Such decaying
and precipitating fossils are associated with oil and gas deposits.
Through gradual accumulation and consolidation with cementing
materials formed sandstone and the Hintalo limestone. The Hintalo
is so named where it was first identified in Tigray Regional State.
In upper Jurassic, in the Horn of Africa-Ethiopia the land was
uplifted that resulted in the regression of sea.
At this time as the sea receded, gypsum, shale, sands were overlain
the Hintalo limestone. The upper most layer is called the Upper
Sandstone.
At the end of Mesozoic Era, there was an uplifting of the land mass
as a result, thee major sedimentary formations took place, namely
the Adigrat or Lower Sandstone, Hintalo limestone and the Upper
Sandstone.
The Mesozoic sedimentary rocks account for about 25% of the
2.4 Geological Processes and the Resulting Landforms of Ethiopia
Due to the tilting of the landmass during transgression and
regression of the sea i.e., the orientation of transgression and
regression of the sea, the thickness of sand stone depositions vary
from southeast to northwest.

The Adigrat sandstone is older and thicker in the southeast and

progressively decreases in age and thickness northward.
The Upper Sand stone on the other hand is thicker and younger
(Upper Cretaceous) in the southeast, while in the northwest it is
older and thicker.

The transgression of the sea and Mesozoic sediments nearly

covered the whole Ethiopia. The northwest limit was central Tigray,
the western slopes of the Northwestern Highlands.

The Mesozoic sediments were overlain by the Cenozoic rocks.

Such rocks are exposed in Tigray, the Abay gorge and Wabishebele
gorges.
2.4 Geological Processes and the Resulting Landforms of Ethiopia
2.4.4 The Cenozoic Era (70 million till the present time)
Cenozoic is the most recent Era in the geological history of the Earth.
The present day land mass of Ethiopia in particular and the Horn of Africa in
general took place in the Cenozoic Era.

The major geological episodes in the Cenozoic Era include:

The Afro-Arabian Swell (uplifting) of the land mass and outpouring of large
lava.
Formation of the Ethiopian Graben (Rift Valley);
Quaternary volcanic activity and deposition.
Cont’d
1.The Afro-Arabian Swell

The uplifting of the land mass that started from Upper

Jurassic and Cretaceous period continued in the Cenozoic
Era.

The epeirogenetic uplifting process in Eocene was

great in magnitude.
• The land was uplifted to a height of 2000 m.
• The whole Ethio-Arabian land mass was uplifted.
• The greatest uplift was in the central
Ethiopia.
It was unparalleled anywhere else except in the Alpine
orogenic belts of the Andes
1. The Afro-Arabian Swell
The immense tectonic force fractured the crust in many
places in Ethiopia.

From the cracks huge quantity of lava overlaid the

Mesozoic sedimentary layer to form
• the Ethiopian plateau (thick layer of volcanic rocks upto
1000m in the North central highlands) and
• the floor of the present day Rift-valley.

This volcanic materials (lava) are known as Trapian

series. Except riverine direction, the plateau had flat
shape.
• Thus the overlays include Precambrian overlaid by Mesozoic
sediments and in turn
• Precambrian sediments are overlaid by Trapian lava.
2. The Formation of the Rift Valley

• Related with the theory of plate tectonics.

• According to the theory, the Rift Valley may be lying

on the Earth’s crust below which lateral movement
of the crust in opposite directions producing
tensional forces that caused parallel fractures or
faults on the sides of the up-arched swell.

• As the tension widened the fractures, the central

part of the landmass collapsed to form an extensive
structural depression known as the Rift Valley
Cont’d
 2. The Formation of the Rift Valley
• The major faulting movement probably began in
the late Oligocene and Miocene Epochs of the
Cenozoic Era. This rifted the Red Sea trough,
which began to be flooded from the north.
• But the major rifting, affecting the whole African
Rift System and the Gulf of Aden took place in the
Miocene Epoch.

• Rifting and faulting, however, continued all the

time throughout the Pliocene and even the
Pleistocene Epochs.
 2. The Formation of the Rift Valley
• The Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden were connected as a
result of the rifting and faulting of the land bridge that
separated them.
• At the same period (Pliocene), the Afar depression
(including the Gulf of Zula) was down-faulted allowing
the Red Sea water to penetrate far inside.
• later (at Pleistocene period)
– Reversed tilting and volcanic activity, blocked the connection
and isolated the extension of the sea, allowing much of the
water to evaporate.
– As a result, thick saline materials accumulated.
– the area between the Danakil Depression and the Red Sea was
uplifted to form the Afar Block Mountains
 2. The Formation of the Rift Valley
The Spatial Extent of the Rift Valley
• The Great East African Rift system extends from
Palestine-Jordan in the north to Malawi-Mozambique in
the south, for a distance of ~ 7,200 KMs.
• Of these,
– 5,600 kilometers is in Africa, and
– 1,700 kilometers in Eritrea and Ethiopia.
• On land, the widest part of the Rift Valley is the Afar
Triangle (200-300 km).
– The Red Sea, the Gulf of Aden, and the East African
System meet and form the triangular depression of
the Afar where the Kobar Sink lies about 125 meters
below sea level.
 2. The Formation of the Rift Valley
• The Rift Valley region of Ethiopian is the most unstable
part of the country.
– There are numerous hot springs, fumorales, active
volcanoes, geysers, and frequent earthquakes.
• The formation of the Rift Valley has the following
structural (physiographic) effects:
 It divided the Ethiopian Plateau into two
 It separated the Arabian landmass from African
landmass.
 It caused the formation of the Dead Sea, Red Sea and the
Gulf of Aden troughs.
 It created basins and fault depressions on which the Rift
Valley lakes are formed
 2. The Formation of Lake Tana
• Similar tectonics activities have occurred
in the Lake Tana Basin.
• However, the formation of Lake Tana had
been accentuated by volcanic activity so
that lava flow in the southeast had
dammed part of the rim to deepen the
basin.
• Faulting in other places had a structural
control along some part of the river
courses.
 3. Quaternary Volcanic Eruptions and Depositions
• They are recent volcanic activities that took place after the
formation of the Rift Valley- in the Pliocene-Pleistocene Epochs.
• This is a continuation of the tectonic and volcanic processes that
earlier affected the Rift Valley formation.
• It occurred in the form of renewed rifting/faulting and more
volcanism.
• Limited to the floor of the Rift Valley and the region south of
Lake Tana, where the lava covers an area of more than
3,000km2.
• Aden volcanics and recent faulting are more extensively
developed in the Afar region. The area is shattered by numerous
faults and subjected to extensive scoriaceous basalt eruptions.
• The latter phenomenon is also widely manifested in the main
Ethiopian Rift, especially in its northern section.
 3. Quaternary Volcanic Eruptions and Depositions
• Some of the eruptions have occurred in the last few hundred years.
Because of their recent occurrence, the Aden volcanic have
relatively well-preserved and visible morphological features.
• The basic volcanic features of the Aden series include the following:
 Numerous and freshly preserved volcanic cones, many of which
have explosive craters. Some of these are active Dubi, Erta Ale,
Afrera etc. Of these, Erta Ale is the most active volcano in
Ethiopia.
 Volcanic hills and mountains, some of which are semi-dormant
(Fantale, Boseti-Gouda near Adama, Aletu north of Lake Ziway,
Chebbi north of Lake Hawassa etc.).
 Extensive lava fields and lava sheets some of which are very
recent.
 Lava ridges.
 Thermal springs, fumaroles etc.
 Quaternary Deposition

• During the Quaternary period of the Cenozoic Era,

– the Earth experienced a marked climatic change, where warmer
and dry periods were alternating with cooler and wet periods.
– The last of ‘Ice Age’ in the middle and high latitude areas &
– the time of the Pluvial Rains in Africa.
• The heavy Pluvial Rains eroded the Ethiopian plateau and the eroded
materials were deposited in the Rift Valley lakes.
– resulted in an excessive surface flow; created many and large
rivers. They carried a lot of water and sediments.
– Lake and marshy areas became numerous and deep. Many were
enlarged and covered much area and even merged together. E.g.
• Ziway-Langano-Shalla;
• Hawasa-Shallo;
• Chamo-Abaya; and
• Lake Abe & the nearby smaller lakes and marsh basins formed huge lakes.
 Quaternary Depositions
• After the ‘Pluvial Rains’,
– the Earth’s climate became warmer and drier. Thus, it increased
the rate of evaporation that diminished the sizes of the lakes.
– there are lacustrine deposits of continental origin around many
of the Ethiopian lakes, river valleys and lowlands.
• According to the place and manner of deposition and depositing
agents these deposits are divided as follows:
 a. Lacustrine deposits: on former lakebeds, & swampy depressions.
 b. Fluvial deposits: on river banks, flood plains both in plateau,
foothills etc.
 c. Glacio-fluvial deposits and erosional features: These are occurred
on high mountains, such as Bale and Kaka Mountains.
 d. Aeolian deposits: are windblown deposits.
 e. Coastal and marine deposits: on sea invaded and sea-covered
places
 Quaternary Depositions
• The quaternary deposits are mainly found in
the Rift Valley (Afar and Lakes Region), Baro
lowlands, southern Borena, and parts of
northwestern low lands.

• Generally, the Cenozoic rocks cover 50% of the

land mass of the country. These include
Highland Tertiary volcanics (basalts), Tertiary
as well as Quaternary volcanics, and
sediments of the rift valley.
 2.5. Rock and Mineral Resources of Ethiopia
• The occurrence of metallic minerals in Ethiopia is associated with
the Precambrian rocks.
• a great variety of such minerals occur in the basement rocks, not
in sufficient concentration though.

• The exploitation and search for mineral deposits in Ethiopia has

been taking place for the past 2,000 years or so, and its early
cultures were based partially on the mineral wealth of the day.
• Such has been
• the case of gold production and utilization, which has become
part of Ethiopia’s history, tradition and folklore.
• The mining and working of iron for the manufacture of tools,
utensils and weapons, and
• the use of salt and salt-bar all these indicate to a fairly long
mining tradition.
• However, presently mineral production from Ethiopia has been
negligible by World standards.
 2.5. Major Minerals and Rocks
• Gold - Benishangul-Gumuz (Metekel) and Adola
• Primary sources in such localities as Dermi-dama, Sakoro and
Lega-dembi. Mechanised alluvial working is confined to the
state-operated gold field of Adola.

• Secondary gold deposits are common in the following

localities: Adola, Murmur Basin, Shakiso, Awata Basin, Dawa
Basin, Ghenale Basin, Ujama Basin,Makanisa (Guba and
Wombera), Kaffa. In Gambella and Illuababora (Akobo River), in
Sidama (Wondo), Borena (Negele-Yabelo area) and in
Benishangul-Gumuz (Sherkole), west Wellega, Mengi-Tumat-
Shangul areas to the Sudanese border, and the drainage of the
Didessa and Birbir.
•
 2.5. Major Minerals and Rocks
• Platinium- The Yubdo area in Wellega, is the only active Ethiopian
Platinum mine
• Platinum occurrences have been reported from Delatti in
Wellega, and the valley of Demi-Denissa and Bone Rivers as well
as Tullu Mountain area in Sidama.

• Tantalem- Significant deposit of tantalum and niobium is

found in southern Ethiopia.
• It occurs in Adola area where Kenticha Tantalum mine with
resources of more than 17,000 metric tons of world class ore
reserve is found
• Extensive lignite deposits in Ethiopia are found in Nedjo (Welega),
• Small amounts in Chilga (Gonder) are found in the sedimentary
formations laid in between Trapean lava.
• However, important Lignite- the lowest ranked coal, is known to
occur in many localities
Metalic Minerals Distribution
 2.5. Major Minerals and Rocks
• Gemstones- incl. amethyst, aquamarine, emerald, garnet,
opal, peridot, sapphire, and tourmaline found
• Found in many places of Amhara andd Oromia Regions
• Quality Opal was first discovered by local people in Wadla and
Dalantaworedas, North Welloin Amhara Regional State
• Potash- The potash reserve in the Danakil (Dallol
Depression) of the Afar region is believed to be significant.
• Gypsum and Anhydrite- occur in sedimentary formations of the Red
Sea coastal area, Danakil Depression, Ogaden, Shewa, Gojjam, Tigray,
and Hararghe
• Clay- Ethiopia is endowed with industrial clay material.
• Alluvial clay deposits for bricks and tile, pottery and pipe industry
occur in Adola, Abay gorge, and the Rift Valley lakes region.
• Ceramic clay for the production of glasses, plates, bricks is found
at Ambo and Adola.
• Tabor ceramic industry in Hawassa gets most of its raw materials from
 2.5. Major Minerals and Rocks
• Marble-
• Crystalline limestone is widespread in the basement rocks of Ethiopia.
• Marble has been quarried in such localities as west of Mekelle and south of
Adwa in Tigray.
• In the east in Galetti, Soka, Ramis, Rochelle, Kumi and other valleys of
Chercher Mountain in West Hararghe.
• In the northwestern also in areas built of Precambrian schist in Gonder, and
the Dabus River and other neighboring river basins in Benishangul-Gumuz and
Gojjam.
• Construction Stones-
• Basalt, granite, limestone and sandstone are important building stones.
• For the surfacing of roads and compaction, basalt, scoria and other volcanic
rocks are extensively used.
• Mesozoic limestone is an important raw material for cement and chalk
production.
• The earlier cement works at Dire Dawa and the recent ones at Muger Valley,
Abay gorge (Dejen), Tigray (Messebo) are using similar raw materials from
these rock formations.
 2.5. Major Minerals and Rocks
2.5.2. Mineral Potential Sites of Ethiopia
According to the Ethiopian geological survey, the geologic formations that host most
mineral potentials of Ethiopia includes three major greenstone belts and other
formations (Fig. 2.3). These are:
The Western and South-western-greenstone belt: They contain
various minerals: primary gold occurrences (Dul,Tulu-Kape,Oda-Godere,
Akobo,Baruda,Bekuji-Motish and Kalaj);Yubdo Platinum, Base metals of
AzaliAkendeyu, Abetselo and Kata;Fakushu Molybdenite and the iron deposits of
Bikilal, Chago, Gordana and Korre, Benshagul-Gumuz- Marble, Akobo and Asosa
placer gold deposits and etc.
The Southern greenstone belt:It is known as the Adola belt,
which comprises the primary gold deposits and occurrences of Lega-dembi, Sakaro,
Wellena, Kumudu, Megado-Serdo, Dawa Digati, Moyale and Ababa River;the
columbo-tantalite of kenticha and Meleka, andthe Adola nickel deposit and other
industrial minerals.
The Northern greenstone belt(Tigray): This belt comprises of the
primary gold occurrences of Terakemti, Adi-Zeresenay, and Nirague.The base metals
of Terer, Tsehafiemba and other parts of Tigray, Placer gold occurrences of Tigray.
The Ethiopian Rift Valley Formation

Formation of a Rift valley

Lateral tensional forces and Afro-Arabian rift system

The Ethiopian Rift Valley Formation

Major faulting took place in the late Oligocene and Miocene epoch of Cenozoic era.
The Ethiopian Rift valley is an upwelling zone (spreading zone, divergent zone) ,
lateral tensions create cracks in which the central block collapses and forms the rift.
The Ethiopian Rift valley is part of the Great Afro-Arabian Rift system starts from the
Levant in a NNE to SSW alignment the East African Rift and reaches Lake Malawi has
a length of nearly 6 000 km.
Sea-Floor
Spreading
m.y. means
million years
ago

Notice this
compass. It is
important for
the next slide
 http://platetectonics.pwnet.org/img/blocks.gif

As the sea floor spreads, the lava cools according to the magnetic poles at
the time. The rocks on the ocean floor have proved that the earth’s
magnetic field sometimes reverses. The inner core flips and so the north
pole moves to the southern hemisphere! The earthh itself does not flip.
What causes sea floor spreading? Convection
currents!
Click here for a hyperlink to an animation of convection

Be sure to click the play button!

Animation of sea floor spreading

Can you explain this diagram!?

The place where two plates move
apart or diverge is called a divergent
boundary.
This is a model of sea floor spreading at a divergent boundary called
a mid ocean ridge.
 : www.ocean.udel.edu

Did you know that the Earth’s longest mountain range is underwater and is called
the mid-ocean ridge?

The Mid-Ocean Ridge system, shown above snaking its way

between the continents, is more than 56,000 kilometers (35,000 mi)
long. It circles the earth like the stitching on a baseball!
A convergent boundary is where two plates
come together, or converge. The result of the
plates hitting together is called a collision.
A transform boundary is a place where
two plates slip past each other, moving in
opposite directions.
 tal
n en
o nti
c to
ust
l c r Continen
nta tal crust t
n e o oceanic
o nti
C

Oceanic crust to oceanic

Continental crust to continental crust
collision Before collision

India-Asia (Himalayas)

After collision
from: http://www.geo.lsa.umich.edu/~crlb/COURSES/270
Also the way the Appalachian Mountains formed!
 Because one plate gets pushed under
another, it is called subduction. This
is where volcanoes form!
Oceanic crust
Oceanic crust colliding
colliding with
with continental crust
oceanic crust

all from: http://www.geo.lsa.umich.edu/~crlb/COURSES/270

The process by
which the ocean
floor sinks
beneath a deep-
ocean trench
and back into
the mantle is
called
Worldwide Earthquake patterns help us know where the edges of
plates are located
The Earth’s Plates
Here you see
the two slides
together.
What do you
see?
http://www.livescience.com/images/pangea_animation_03.gif