1 – Introduction

The discipline of geography bridges the social sciences with the physical sciences and can provide a
framework for understanding our world. By studying geography, we can begin to understand the
relationships and common factors that tie our human community together. The world is undergoing
globalization on a massive scale as a result of the rapid transfer of information and technology and
the growth of modes of transportation and communication. The more we understand our world, the
better prepared we will be to address the issues that confront our future. There are many approaches
to studying world geography. Here we take a regional approach and focus on themes that illustrate
the globalization process, which in turn assists us in better understanding our global community and
its current affairs.

Geography helps us make sense of the world through four historical traditions:

Spatial analysis of natural and human cultures

Earth science
Area studies
Human-landscape interactions
Spatial analysis includes many of the concepts tied to geographic information science (GIS): the
analysis of the interactions and distribution of many types of information using computer databases.
The GIS data are entered into computer programs that convert location indicators to points or
features on a map. Earth science includes the study of landforms, climates, and the distribution of
plants and animals. Area or regional studies focuses on a particular region to understand the
dynamics of a specific interaction between human activity and the environment. Researchers
studying human-landscape interaction examine the impact of humans on their landscape and find
out how different cultures have used and changed their environments. Geography provides the tools
to integrate knowledge from many disciplines into a usable form by providing a sense of place to
natural or human events. You will find that geography often explains why or how something occurs
in a specific location. World geography utilizes the spatial approach to help understand the
components of our global community.

Geography Basics

What is Geography?

Geography is the spatial study of the earth’s surface (from the Greek geo, which means “Earth,” and
graphein, which means “to write”). Geographers study the earth’s physical characteristics, its
inhabitants and cultures, phenomena such as climate, and the earth’s place within the universe.
Geography examines the spatial relationships between all physical and cultural phenomena in the
world. Geographers also look at how the earth, its climate, and its landscapes are changing due to
cultural intervention.

What is Geography? Geography comes from a Greek work, Geo and Graphia (geographia). literary
means “description of the Earth”

first used by the Greek scholar Eratosthenes in the 3rd century B.C.E. it is best summed up as the
“study of the Earth as the home of humankind.”

Geography- modern academic discipline of geography has its roots in the Greek and Roman
civilization and emerged from that classical tradition through the Scientific Revolution in Europe.
The National Geographic Society commissioned a team of geographers to identify the core features of
the discipline of geography.

Six Essential Elements of Geography

1. The World in Spatial Terms • Geography studies the relationships between people, places, and
environments by mapping information about them into a spatial context.

2. Places and Regions • The identities and lives of individuals and people are rooted in particular
places and in human construct called region.
 3. Physical System • Physical processes shape the Earth’s surface and interact with plants and animal
life to create, sustain, and modify ecosystem

4. Human System • People are central to geography; human activities, settlements, and structures
help shape the earth’s surface, and human compete for control of the earth’s surface.
5. Environment and Society • The physical environment is influenced by the ways in which human
societies value and use the earth’s physical features and processes. 6. Uses of Geography •
Knowledge of geography enables people to develop an understanding of the relationships between
people, places, and environments over time

Major Branches of Geography

1. Physical Geography • It includes the natural environmental processes across Earth’s surface that
result in the distribution of climate varieties, plant ecologies, soil type, mountain formation, and river
action, among other pattern.

Physical geography is the spatial study of natural phenomena that make up the environment, such as
rivers, mountains, landforms, weather, climate, soils, plants, and any other physical aspects of the
earth’s surface. Physical geography focuses on geography as a form of earth science. It tends to
emphasize the main physical parts of the earth—the lithosphere (surface layer), the atmosphere (air),
the hydrosphere (water), and the biosphere (living organisms)—and the relationships between these
parts.

The major forms of study within physical geography include the following:

1.Geomorphology (the study of the earth’s surface features)

2.Glaciology (the study of glaciers)
3.Coastal geography (the study of the coastal regions)
4.Climatology (the study of climates and climate change)
5.Biogeography (the study of the geographic patterns of species distribution)

Some physical geographers study the earth’s place in the solar system. Others are environmental
geographers, part of an emerging field that studies the spatial aspects and cultural perceptions of the
natural environment. Environmental geography requires an understanding of both physical and
human geography, as well as an understanding of how humans conceptualize their environment and
the physical landscape.
Physical landscape is the term used to describe the natural terrain at any one place on the planet. The
natural forces of erosion, weather, tectonic plate action, and water have formed the earth’s physical
features. Many US state and national parks attempt to preserve unique physical landscapes for the
public to enjoy, such as Yellowstone, Yosemite, and the Grand Canyon.

Human geography is the study of human activity and its relationship to the earth’s surface. Human
geographers examine the spatial distribution of human populations, religions, languages, ethnicities,
political systems, economics, urban dynamics, and other components of human activity. They study
patterns of interaction between human cultures and various environments and focus on the causes
and consequences of human settlement and distribution over the landscape. While the economic and
cultural aspects of humanity are primary focuses of human geography, these aspects cannot be
understood without describing the landscape on which economic and cultural activities take place.

The cultural landscape is the term used to describe those parts of the earth’s surface that have been
altered or created by humans. For example, the urban cultural landscape of a city may include
buildings, streets, signs, parking lots, or vehicles, while the rural cultural landscape may include
fields, orchards, fences, barns, or farmsteads. Cultural forces unique to a given place—such as
religion, language, ethnicity, customs, or heritage—influence the cultural landscape of that place at a
given time. The colors, sizes, and shapes of the cultural landscape usually symbolize some level of
significance regarding societal norms. Spatial dynamics assist in identifying and evaluating cultural
differences between places.
Geographic information science (GIS), often referred to as geographic information systems, uses a
computer program to assimilate and manage many layers of map data, which then provide specific
information about a given place. GIS data are usually in digital form and arranged in layers. The GIS
computer program can sort or analyze layers of data to illustrate a specific feature or activity. GIS
programs are used in a wide range of applications, from determining the habitat range of a particular
species of bird to mapping the hometowns of university students.

The Graphic Representation of the Earth. The GLOBE is man’s closest representation of the Earth
itself. A globe shows the Earth as it actually looks when seen from outer space.

Figure 1.2 Illustration of Layers in a GIS Process

The Lines in the Globe Meridians (Lines of Longitude). The North-South lines on the surface of a
globe, running from pole to pole.

Meridians are used to measure distance or to plot a position east or west of a line of reference known
as the PRIME MERIDIAN

By international agreement, Prime Meridian is the line that passes through Greenwich, England and
is numbered 0. The East and West position or distance measured therefrom is known as
LONGITUDE and expressed in degrees (0 ) of fraction

The Earth and Graticule Location

Figure 1.4 Noted Lines of Latitude

West longitude extends halfway around the earth to the west of Greenwich. East Longitude extends
halfway around the east Since a circle comprises 3600 , west and east longitude each reach from 0 to
180 degrees.

Parallels (Lines of Latitude) The lines on the globe that across the meridians at right angles, and thus
run due east and west. North latitude and South latitude both extend from 0 to 900

Special Lines of Latitude

Located at 23.44 0 north of the Equator. It marks the northernmost limit of the sun’s direct vertical
rays and this occurs on June 23, also called SUMMER SOLSTICE, in the Northern Hemisphere. The
Tropic of Cancer
– Climate and Latitude

The Tropic of Cancer is the parallel at 23.5 degrees north of the equator, which is the most northerly
place on Earth, receiving direct sunlight during the Northern Hemisphere’s summer. Remember that
the earth is tilted 23.5 degrees, which accounts for seasonal variations in climate.
The Tropic of Capricorn is the parallel at 23.5 degrees south of the equator and is the most southerly
location on Earth, receiving direct sunlight during the Southern Hemisphere’s summer.
Time Zones

The annual fall occurrence of Daylight Saving Time and the return in spring to standard time
brings with it the biannual confusion of what time zones and countries do what and how many hours
people in different parts of the world are from each other.

USA Time Zones Central Meridian

Eastern standard time zone 75 degrees W

Central standard time zone 90 degrees W

Mountain standard time zone 105 degrees W

Pacific standard time zone 120 degrees W

 USA Time Zones Central Meridian

The most well-known time zone is Greenwich Mean Time which is considered the standard by
which all other time zones are based after. Greenwich Time was established because the world
needed a prime meridian location by which to conduct navigation, shipping, trade, and more.

The Greenwich Meridian became the prime meridian used to establish a baseline for time that could
then be used for timekeeping and navigational purposes around the world.

The connections between tourism and geography are linked to specific terms such as place, location, space,
accessibility, scale and others. This science also has an integrative character, containing key elements from all
fields of geography, physical, human and economic.

8 Different Types of Maps

1. Political Map
A political map shows the state and national boundaries of a place. A political map does not have any
topographic features.
It also shows the location of cities, with respect to each other.

Asia North America

2. Physical Map
A physical map is one which shows the physical features of a place or country, like rivers, mountains,
forests and lakes.
The physical features are usually shown in different colors.
Rivers and lakes are shown in blue, places of low elevation are shown in dark green and as the elevation
increases, the color becomes light green and eventually orange.
Mountains are shown in brown.
 Africa Australia

3. Topographic Map
Topographic maps are similar to physical maps, which show the physical features of an area. Although in
topographic maps, differences in elevation and changes in landscape are shown with the help of contour
lines and not colors.

Europe

4. Climatic Map
A climatic map shows the information about the climate of different areas.
For example it shows areas which receive more rainfall or snow, or which have dry weather. It uses
colors to depict areas with different climate.

5. Economic or Resource Map

Economic or resource maps show the different resources present in the area or economic activity
prevalent. They show the kind of crops that are grown and the minerals found in places. Symbols and
letters are used to depict the activity or resource present in the area.
6. Road Map
Road map is the most widely used map which shows different roads, highways or railways present in the
area. It is a very detailed map and is generally used for direction purposes.
Road maps are usually made individually, city-wise.There are road maps present for an entire country
too, but they cannot be made very detailed.

7. Scale of a Map
The scale of a map shows the relationship between the distances on the map with respect to actual
distances on the Earth. For example if the scale of a map is 1 cm to a kilometer, that means 1 cm on the
map is equivalent to 1 kilometer on actual ground.
Using a scale you can quite accurately measure the distance between 2 places.

8. Symbols
On maps different symbols represent different things, for example black dots represent cities, circle stars
represent capitals.

Different types of lines represent roads, highways and railways.

Trees and forests are depicted in green, mountains in brown and rivers and lakes in blue.
This done for making it easier for us to spot these features and study the map.

Asia is the largest continent on Earth. It covers 9% of the Earth's total surface area (or 30% of its land area),
and has the longest coastline, at 62,800 kilometres (39,022 mi). Asia is generally defined as comprising the
eastern four-fifths of Eurasia.

Being the biggest continent in the world, Asia includes 50 independent countries and occupies the eastern part
of the single Eurasian landmass. Surrounded by the Arctic Ocean from the north, by the Pacific Ocean from the
east and by the Indian Ocean from the south, it is separated from Africa by Suez Canal.
Asia is the largest of the 7 continents. There are 48 countries in Asia. Most people of Asia are Chinese,
Japanese, Indian, or Arab. The main religions include Buddhism, Hinduism, Taoism, Jainism, Christianity, and
Shintoism. The largest cities of Asia are Tokyo, Seoul, Jakarta, Dehli, Mumbai, Manila, and Shanghai. Asia is
surrounded on three sides by oceans. The Pacific, Artic, and Indian oceans all surround Asia. The land of Asia
is divided into six regions. These six regions are North Asia, Central Asia, Southwest Asia, South Asia,
Southeast Asia, and East Asia. Each region has something unique to offer.

 It’s extremely cold year round with below freezing temperatures. Snow and ice cover Siberia for most of the
year. Siberia is the largest land area of Asia. It is bigger than the country of Canada! This northern region has
the most land but the fewest people. Northern Asia is home to the famous Siberian Tiger and Husky
dogs. Despite the extreme cold, the area is a leading world producer of oil, diamonds, gold, and timber.

East Asia is the region with the most people. China is the largest country in East Asia. China has the most
people of any country in the world. To control the population,

Asia makes up the eastern portion of the Eurasian supercontinent; Europe occupies the western portion.
The border between the two continents is debated. However, most geographers define Asia’s western border as
an indirect line that follows the Ural Mountains, the Caucasus Mountains, and the Caspian and Black Seas. Asia
is bordered by the Arctic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans.

Asia’s physical geography, environment and resources, and human geography can be considered separately.

Asia can be divided into five major physical regions: mountain systems; plateaus; plains, steppes,
and deserts; freshwater environments; and saltwater environments.

Mountain Systems

The Himalaya mountains extend for about 2,500 kilometers (1,550 miles), separating the Indian
subcontinent from the rest of Asia. The Indian subcontinent, once connected to Africa, collided with the
Eurasian continent about 50 million to 55 million years ago, forming the Himalayas. The Indian subcontinent is
still crashing northward into Asia, and the Himalayas are growing about 5 centimeters (2 inches) every year.

The Himalayas cover more than 612,000 square kilometers (236,000 square miles), passing through the
northern states of India and making up most of the terrain of Nepal and Bhutan. The Himalayas are so vast that
they are composed of three different mountain belts. The northernmost belt, known as the Great Himalayas, has
the highest average elevation at 6,096 meters (20,000 feet). The belt contains nine of the highest peaks in the
world, which all reach more than 7,925 meters (26,000 feet) tall. This belt includes the highest
mountain summit in the world, Mount Everest, which stands at 8,849 meters (29,032 feet).

The Tien Shan mountain system stretches for about 2,400 kilometers (1,500 miles), straddling
the border between Kyrgyzstan and China. The name Tien Shan means “Celestial Mountains” in Chinese.
The two highest peaks in the Tien Shan are Victory Peak, which stands at 7,439 meters (24,406 feet), and Khan
Tängiri Peak, which stands at 6,995 meters (22,949 feet). Tien Shan also has more than 10,100 square
kilometers (3,900 square miles) of glaciers. The largest glacier is Engil'chek Glacier, which is about 60
kilometers (37 miles) long.

The Tian Shan, also known as the Tengri Tagh or Tengir-Too, meaning the
Mountains of Heaven or the Heavenly Mountain, is a large system of mountain ranges located in Central Asia.

The Ural Mountains run for approximately 2,500 kilometers (1,550 miles) in an indirect north-south line from
Russia to Kazakhstan. The Ural Mountains are some of the world’s oldest, at 250 million to 300 million
years old. Millions of years of erosion have lowered the mountains significantly, and today their
average elevation is between 914 and 1,220 meters (3,000 to 4,000 feet). The highest peak is Mount Narodnaya
at 1,895 meters (6,217 feet).

Plateaus

Asia is home to many plateaus, areas of relatively level high ground. The Iranian plateau covers more than 3.6
million square kilometers (1.4 million square miles), encompassing most of Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan.
The plateau is not uniformly flat, but contains some high mountains and low river basins. The highest mountain
peak is Damavand, at 5,610 meters (18,410 feet). The plateau also has two large deserts, the Dasht-e Kavir and
Dasht-e Lut.

The Deccan Plateau makes up most of the southern part of India. The plateau’s average elevation is about
600 meters (2,000 feet). It is bordered by three mountain ranges: the Satpura Range in the north, and the Eastern
and Western Ghats on either side. The plateau and its main waterways—the Godavari and Krishna rivers—
gently slope toward the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal.

The Tibetan Plateau is usually considered the largest and highest area ever to exist in the history of
Earth. Known as the “Rooftop of the World,” the plateau covers an area about half the size of the contiguous
United States and averages more than 5,000 meters (16,400 feet) above sea level. The Tibetan Plateau is
extremely important to the world’s water cycle because of its tremendous number of glaciers.
These glaciers contain the largest volume of ice outside the poles. The ice and snow from these glaciers feed
Asia’s largest rivers. Approximately 2 billion people depend on the rivers fed by the plateau’s glaciers.

Tibetan Plateau vast elevated

plateau in South Asia 

Yamdrok Lake The lake is surrounded by many snow-capped mountains

and is fed by numerous small streams. The lake has an outlet stream at its far western end and means turquoise
in English due to its color.[1]

Plains, Steppes, and Deserts

The West Siberian Plain, located in central Russia, is considered one of the world’s largest areas of
continuous flatland. It extends from north to south about 2,400 kilometers (1,500 miles) and from west to east
about 1,900 kilometers (1,200 miles). With more than 50 percent of its area at less than 100 meters (330 feet)
above sea level, the plain contains some of the world’s largest swamps and flood plains.

Central Asia is dominated by a steppe landscape, a large area of flat, unforested grassland. Mongolia can be
divided into different steppe zones: the mountain forest steppe, the arid steppe, and the desert steppe. These
zones transition from the country’s mountainous region in the north to the Gobi Desert on the
southern border with China.

The Rub’ al Khali desert, considered the world’s largest sand sea, covers an area larger than France
across Saudi Arabia, Oman, the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen. It holds roughly half as much sand as
Africa’s Sahara desert, even though it is 15 times smaller in size. The desert is known as the Empty Quarter
because it is virtually inhospitable to humans except for Bedouin tribes that live on its edges.

Freshwater

Lake Baikal, located in southern Russia, is the deepest lake in the world, reaching a depth of 1,620 meters
(5,315 feet). The lake contains 20 percent of the world’s unfrozen freshwater, making it the largest reservoir on
Earth. It is also the world’s oldest lake, at 25 million years old.

Lake Baikal, Russia is one of the most beautiful and picturesque places
not only in Siberia but also on the entire planet

The Yangtze is the longest river in Asia and the third longest in the world (behind the Amazon of South
America and the Nile of Africa). Reaching 6,300 kilometers (3,915 miles) in length, the Yangtze moves east
from the glaciers of the Tibetan Plateau to the river’s mouth on the East China Sea. The Yangtze is considered
the lifeblood of China. It drains one-fifth of the country’s land area, is home to one-third of its population, and
contributes greatly to China’s economy.

The Tigris and Euphrates Rivers begin in the highlands of eastern Turkey and flow through Syria and Iraq,
joining in the city of Qurna, Iraq, before emptying into the Persian Gulf. The land between the two rivers,
known as Mesopotamia, was the center of the earliest civilizations, including Sumer and the Akkadian Empire.
Today, the Tigris-Euphrates river system is under threat from increased agricultural and industrial use. These
pressures have caused desertification and increased salts in the soil, severely damaging local watershed habitats.

Saltwater

The Persian Gulf has an area of more than 234,000 square kilometers (90,000 square miles). It borders Iran,
Oman, United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Bahrain, Kuwait, and Iraq. The gulf is subject to high rates
of evaporation, making it shallow and extremely salty. The seabed beneath the Persian Gulf contains an
estimated 50 percent of the world’s oil reserves. The countries that border the gulf have engaged in a number of
disputes over this rich resource.

The Persian Gulf , sometimes called the Arabian Gulf

The Sea of Okhotsk covers 1.5 million square kilometers (611,000 square miles) between the Russian mainland
and the Kamchatka Peninsula. The sea is largely frozen between October and March. Large ice floes make
winter navigation almost impossible.

The Bay of Bengal is the largest bay in the world, covering almost 2.2 million square kilometers (839,000
square miles) and bordering Bangladesh, India, Sri Lanka, and Burma. Many large rivers, including the Ganges
and Brahmaputra, empty into the bay. The briny wetlands formed by the Ganges-Brahmaputra on the Bay of
Bengal is the largest delta in the world.

Terrestrial Flora and Fauna

Botanists nickname China the “Mother of Gardens.” It has more flowering plant species than North and South
America combined. Because China has such diverse landscapes, from the arid Gobi Desert to the tropical rain
forests of Yunnan Province, many flowers can adapt to climates all over the world. From roses to peonies, many
familiar flowers most likely originated in northern China. China is the likely origin of such fruit trees as peaches
and oranges. China is also home to the dawn redwood, the only redwood tree found outside North America.

Asia’s diverse physical and cultural landscape has dictated the way animals have been domesticated. In the
Himalayas, communities use yaks as beasts of burden. Yaks are large animals related to cattle, but with a
thick fiber coat and the ability to survive in the oxygen-poor high altitude of the mountains. Yaks are not only
used for transportation and for pulling plows, but their coats are sources of warm, hardy fiber. Yak milk is used
for butter and cheese.
In the Mongolian steppe, the two-humped Bactrian camel is the traditional beast of burden. Bactrian camels
are critically endangered in the wild. The camel’s humps store nutrient-rich fat, which the animal can use in
times of drought, heat, or frost. Its size and ability to adapt to hardship make it an ideal pack animal. Bactrians
can actually outrun horses over long distances. These camels were the traditional animals used in caravans on
the Silk Road, the legendary trade route linking eastern Asia with India and the Middle East.

Aquatic Flora and Fauna

The freshwater and marine habitats of Asia offer incredible biodiversity.

Lake Baikal’s age and isolation make it a unique biological site. Aquatic life has been able to evolve for

millions of years relatively undisturbed, producing a rich variety of flora and fauna. The lake is known as the
“Galápagos of Russia” because of its importance to the study of evolutionary science. It has 1,340 species of
animals and 570 species of plants.

Hundreds of Lake Baikal’s species are endemic, meaning they are found nowhere else on Earth. The Baikal
seal, for instance, is one of the few freshwater seal species in the world. The Baikal seal feeds primarily on the
Baikal oil fish and the omul. Both fishes are similar to salmon, and provide fisheries for the communities on
the lake.

The Bay of Bengal, on the Indian Ocean, is one of the world’s largest tropical marine ecosystems. The bay is
home to dozens of marine mammals, including the bottlenose dolphin, spinner dolphin, spotted dolphin, and
Bryde’s whale. The bay also supports healthy tuna, jack, and marlin fisheries.

Some of the bay’s most diverse array of organisms exist along its coasts and wetlands. Many wildlife
reserves in and around the bay aim to protect its biological diversity.

The Sundarbans is a wetland area that forms at the delta of the Ganges and Brahamaputra rivers. The
Sundarbans is a huge mangrove forest. Mangroves are hardy trees that are able to withstand the powerful,
salty tides of the Bay of Bengal as well as the freshwater flows from the Ganges and Brahamaputra. In addition
to mangroves, the Sundarbans is forested by palm trees and swamp grasses.

The swampy jungle of the Sundarbans supports a rich animal community. Hundreds of species of fish, shrimp,
crabs, and snails live in the exposed root system of the mangrove trees. The Sundarbans supports more than 200
species of aquatic and wading birds. These small animals are part of a food web that includes wild boar,
macaque monkeys, monitor lizards, and a healthy population of Bengal tigers.