METODOLOGI

PENELITIAN
Dadang Sudana
(Source: Nunan, 1992)
An introduction to research methods and traditions

Research traditions in applied linguistics

 What is research?

The minimal definition: “research is a systematic

process of inquiry consisting of three elements or
components: (1) a question, problem, or
hypothesis; 2) data; 3) analysis and interpretation of
data.”
 A binary distinction: qualitative and quantitative

research
Qualitative Research
Advocate use of qualitative methods
Concerned with understanding human
behaviour from the actor’s own frame
of reference
Naturalistic and uncontrolled
observation
Subjective
Close to the data: the ‘insider’
perspective
Grounded, discovery-oriented,
exploratory, expansionist, descriptive
and inductive
Process-oriented
Valid: ‘real’, ‘rich’, and ‘deep’ data
Ungeneralizable: single case studies
Assumes a dynamic reality
Quantitative Research
Advocate use of quantitative methods
Seek facts or causes of social
phenomena without regard to the
subjective states of the individuals
Obtrusive and controlled measurement
Objective
Removed from the data: the ‘outsider’
perspective
Ungrounded, verification-oriented,
confirmatory, reductionist, inferential,
and hypothetical-deductive
Outcome-oriented
Reliable: ‘hard’ and replicable data
Generalizable: multiple case studies
Assume a stable reality
 It has been argued that the distinction is simplistic
and naïve; however, Nunan (1992) asserts that it
does represent real distinction at a philosophical
level which is not always reflected in the actual
conduct of empirical investigation.
 “Underpinning quantitative research is the
positivistic notion that the basic function of research
is to uncover facts and truths which are independent
of the researcher. Qualitative researchers question
this notion of an objective reality.”
 “Those who draw a distinction suggest that
quantitative is obtrusive and controlled, objective,
generalizable, outcome oriented, and assumes the
existence of ‘facts’ which are somehow external to
and independent of the observer or researcher. The
qualitative research, on the other hand, assumes that
all knowledge is relative, that there is a subjective
element to all knowledge and research, and that
holistic, ungeneralizable studies are justifiable.”
 “In metaphorical terms, quantitative research is ‘hard’
while qualitative research is ‘soft’.”
 To go beyond the binary distinction between qualitative and
quantitative research, Chaudron (1988) argues that there are
four research traditions in applied linguistics: psychometric
investigation, interaction analysis, discourse analysis, and
ethnography.
 Psychometric investigation determines language gains from
different methods and materials through the use of the
‘experimental methods’.
 Interaction analysis investigates relationships as the extent
to which learner behaviour is a function of teacher-
determined interaction, and utilizes various observation
systems and schedules for coding classroom interaction.
 Discourse analysis analyses classroom discourse in linguistic terms
through the study of classroom transcripts which typically assign
utterances to predetermined categories.
 Ethnography seeks to obtain insights into the classroom as a cultural
system through naturalistic, ‘uncontrolled’ observation and
description.
 However, Nunan (1992) argues that discourse analysis and interaction
analysis are methods of data collection rather than distinct research
traditions in their own right. These methods have been utilized by
researchers working in both psychometric and ethnographic traditions.
For example, ethnographers can use interaction analysis checklists to
supplement their naturalistic observations, while psychometric
research can use similar schemes to identify and measure distinctions
between different classrooms, teaching methods, approaches, and
teachers.
 Grotjahn (1987) argues that the qualitative-quantitative
distinction is an oversimplification. Research studies need
to consider (a) the method of data collection
(experimentally or non-experimentally); (b) the type of data
yielded (qualitative or quantitative); (c) the type of analysis
conducted (statistical or interpretive).
 Mixing and matching these variables results in two ‘pure’
research paradigms: 1) the ‘exploratory-interpretive’: non-
experimental design, qualitative data, interpretive analysis;
and 2) the ‘analytical-nomological’ paradigms:
experimental or quasi-experimental design, quantitative
data, statistical analysis;
 and six ‘mixed’ paradigms: the experimental-
qualitative-interpretive (experimental or quasi
experimental design, qualitative data, interpretive
analysis),
 experimental-qualitative-statistical (experimental or
quasi experimental design, qualitative data,
statistical analysis),
 exploratory-qualitative-statistical (non-
experimental design, qualitative data, statistical
analysis),
 exploratory-quantitative-statistical (non-experimental design,
quantitative data, statistical analysis),
 exploratory-quantitative-interpretive (non-experimental
design, quantitative data, interpretive analysis),
 experimental-quantitative- interpretive (experimental or
quasi-experimental design, quantitative data, interpretive
analysis).
 Nunan (1992) argues that these hybrid forms are theoretically
possible but some are almost impossible to apply, such as
doing the trouble of setting up a formal experiment yielding
quantitative data which are analysed interpretively.
 Van Lier (1988, 1990) argues that research in applied
linguistics can be analyses in terms of two parameters: an
interventionist parameter and a selectivity parameter resulting
in four semantic spaces (a ‘controlling’ space, a ‘measuring’
space, an ‘asking/doing’ space, and a ‘watching’ space)
The Status of Knowledge
 One reason for the persistence of the distinction between
quantitative and qualitative research is that the two
approaches represent different ways of thinking about and
understanding the world around us.
 In developing one’s own philosophy on research, it is
important to determine how the notion of ‘truth’ relates to
research. What is truth? What is evidence? Can we ever
‘prove’ anything? What evidence would compel us to
accept the truth of an assertion or proposition? These are
questions which need to be borne in mind constantly as one
reads and evaluates research.
 One’s view of the world and the nature of knowledge
will influence his/her acceptance or rejection of
particular methods of enquiry and studies utilizing
these methods.
 For some people the notion that there are external
truth ‘out there’ which are independent of the
observer is self-evident. For others, this notion,
which underlies the quantitative approach to
research, is questionable (see, for example,
Winograd and Flores 1986).
Some key concepts in research
 Deductivism: “deductive research begins with a
hypothesis or theory and then searches for evidence
either to support or refute that hypothesis or theory.”
 “Inductivism seek to derive general principles,
theories, or ‘truths’ from an investigation and
documentation of single instances.”
 Falsificationist principle (Popper): “we can never
conclusively demonstrate truth through induction, we
can in fact falsify an assertion through the
documentation of a single disconfirming instance.”
 “All hypothesis should therefore be formulated in a
way which enables them to be falsified through a
single disconfirming instance.”
 “all knowledge is tentative and that, in fact,
‘absolute truth’ is an ideal which can never be
attained.”
 “Progress in applied linguistics should be through
the formulation and testing of hypothesis which are
falsifiable.”
 Reliability: “consistency of the results obtained from
a piece of research. “
 Internal reliability: “the consistency of data
collection, analysis, and interpretation.”
 External reliability: “the extend to which the
independent researchers can reproduce a study and
obtain results similar to those obtained in the
original study.”
 Validity: “the extend to which a piece of research
actually investigates what the researcher purports
to investigate.
 Internal validity: “refers to the interpretability of
research. In experimental research, it concerns with
the question: Can any differences which are found
actually be ascribed to the treatment under
scrutiny?”
 External validity: “the extend to which the results
can be generalized from samples to population.”
 Construct: “a psychological quality, such as
intelligence, proficiency, motivation, or aptitude,
that we cannot directly observe but that we assume
to exist in order to explain behavior we can
observe.”
 “It is extremely important for researchers to define
the constructs they are investigating in a way which
make them accessible to the outside observer.”
 “Construct validity has to do with the question: Is
the study actually investigating what is supposed to
be investigating?”
Action research

 Three defining characteristics of action research:

carried out by practitioners (i.e. teachers),
collaborative, and aimed at changing things. “Action
research is a group activity” (Kemmis and Taggart,
1988).
 “A piece of descriptive research carried out by a
teacher in his or her own classroom, without the
involvement of others, which is aimed at increasing
our understanding rather than changing the
phenomenon under investigation, would not be
considered by these commentators to be ‘action
research’. For Kemmis and Taggart, the essential
impetus for carrying out action research is to
change the system.”
 Nunan (1992) argues that collaboration should not be
seen as a defining characteristic of action research.
 “Many teachers who are interested in exploring
processes of teaching and learning in their own
context are either unable, for practical reasons, or
unwilling, for personal reasons, to do collaborative
research. The work that such people carry out should
not necessarily be excluded as action research.” He
also disputes the claim that action research must
necessarily be concerned with change.
 Step 1: Initiation; Step 2: Preliminary; Step 3:
Hypothesis; Step 4: Intervention; Step 5:
Evaluation; Step 6: Dissemination; Step 7: Follow-
up.
Questions and tasks
 Complete the following statements
Research is …..
Research is carried out in order to ….
 Here is a list of questions which have been addressed
in the research literature. (a) What are the key
constructs associated with each question? (b) which
do you think might best be investigated through
some form of experiment, and which might best be
investigated through naturalistic investigation? (c)
Can you find any studies which might be investigated
either through an experiment or a naturalistic study?
1. Are authentic materials more effective in bringing about
learning than materials written specifically for the
classroom?
2. Does learning a second language involve the same
linguistic processes as learning a first language?
3. Do learners who have grammatical rules explained to
them learn more effectively than those who learn
inductively?
4. How do parents help their children acquire language?
5. How do people keep casual conversation going?