Digestion: The mechanical and

chemical processes taking place in

the gastrointestinal tract by which
food is broken down into absorbable
forms. Digestion is related to, but
not the same as metabolism.

Metabolism: The physical and

chemical processes by which
substances in food are produced or
transformed into energy or products
for the uses of the body.

The gastrointestinal tract (GI tract),

also called the digestive tract, or
the alimentary canal, is the system
of organs that takes in food, digests
it to extract energy and nutrients,
and expels the remaining waste.
The major functions of the GI tract
are digestion and excretion.
 The mouth, also known as the buccal cavity
(bŭk'əl) or oral cavity, is the orifice through which
we take in food and water. It is the entrance to the
digestive tract, and is lined with mucous
membranes called buccal mucosa . The membrane-
covered roof of the mouth is called the palate. The
front part consists of a bony portion called the
hard palate, with a fleshy rear part called the soft
palate.

In response to the sensory stimulation of

seeing, smelling, tasting, or even
imagining good-tasting food, the brain
sends impulses through the nerves that
control the salivary glands located under
the tongue and near the lower jaw, telling
them secrete saliva.
As the teeth tear and chop the food, saliva moistens it for easy swallowing.
A digestive enzyme called amylase (ăm'ə-lāce‘) or ptyalin (tī'ə-lĭn) which is
found in saliva, starts to break down some of the carbohydrates (starches
and sugars) in the food even before it leaves the mouth.
 The tongue is mainly composed of muscles. It is
covered with a mucous membrane. Small nodules of
tissue called papillae ( pə-pĭl'ē ) cover the upper surface
of the tongue.
Between and on the papillae are the taste buds, which provide the sense of
taste. In addition to taste, the tongue functions in moving food to aid chewing
and swallowing. The human tongue can detect five basic taste components:
sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami (ū-mä'mē) (savory).

The lips and inside of the cheek work with

the tongue to position the food for chewing.
Mastication or chewing is the repetitive
sequence of jaw opening and closing is the
process by which food is mashed and
crushed by teeth. It is the first step of
digestion and it increases the surface area of
foods to allow more efficient break down by
salivary enzymes and gastric acids.

There are several types of teeth, each performing a different function. Incisors
cut foods when you bite into them. The sharper and longer canines tear food.
The premolars or bicuspids, which are flatter than the canines, grind and mash
food. Molars, with their points and grooves, are responsible for the most
vigorous chewing.
 The pharynx  (făr'ĭngks or fair-inks) (plural:
pharynges) is the part of the neck and throat
situated immediately posterior to the mouth and
nasal cavity.
Because both food and air
pass through the pharynx,
a flap of connective tissue
called the epiglottis (ĕp'ĭ-
glŏt'ĭs) closes over the
larynx (lăr'ĭngks or lair-
inks) (voice box) opening
when food is swallowed.
This prevents choking or
aspiration, the entry of
secretions or foreign
material into the trachea
(trā'kē-ə) (windpipe) and
lungs.
Swallowing is a complex
act that involves the
coordinated activity of the
mouth, pharynx, larynx and Trachea
esophagus.
The uvula is a small piece of
soft tissue that can be seen
dangling down from the soft palate over
the back of the tongue. It has its own muscle to
help it stiffen and change shape, so it fills the
back of the throat. .

It helps keep
food from going
down the wrong
way down the
breathing
passage when
one swallows.
 The esophagus, or gullet, is an organ which
consists of a muscular tube through which
food passes from the pharynx to the stomach.
When food is not passing through, the esophagus
is folded in, or collapsed. After food is chewed into
a mass, a bolus, it is swallowed to move it past the
upper esophageal sphincter muscle and into the
esophagus. Smooth muscles will contract behind
the bolus to prevent it from being squeezed back
onto the mouth, then rhythmic, downward-
directional waves of contractions called peristalsis
will work to rapidly force the food into the stomach.
The primary peristaltic wave lasts about 8-9
seconds, even if the bolus descends at a faster rate.
In the event that the bolus gets stuck or moves
slower than the primary peristaltic wave (as can
(spelled Oesophagus
happen when it is poorly lubricated with saliva), a in Greek)
local reflex response causes a secondary peristaltic
wave around the bolus. This secondary wave(s) will
force the bolus further down the esophagus, and
will continue indefinitely until the bolus passes the
lower esophageal sphincter muscle and enters the
stomach.
 Esophagus
Fundus

The stomach is a bean-shaped Lower Esophageal

hollow muscular organ of the sphincter
gastrointestinal tract, involved in the
second phase of digestion, following
mastication. The words gastro- and
gastric are derived from Greek,
meaning “related to the stomach”.
The stomach is usually a highly
acidic environment due to gastric
acid production and secretion which
produces a pH range usually Antrum
between 1 and 4, depending on food
intake, time of the day, drug use, and Two smooth muscle valves, or
other factors. Such an environment sphincters, keep the contents of the
is able to break down large stomach contained. They are the lower
molecules (such as from food) to esophageal sphincter at the top of the
smaller ones so that they can stomach and the pyloric sphincter
eventually be absorbed from the dividing the stomach from the small
small intestine. The stomach can intestine. A sticky alkaline mucus is
produce and secrete about 2 to 3 secreted that coats and lubricates the
liters of gastric acid per day. entire gastric surface.
 The stomach is an organ between the esophagus
and the small intestine. It has three tasks.

1. The stomach serves as a short-

term reservoir. It stores swallowed The stomach absorbs
food, allowing a large meal to be very few substances,
consumed quickly and dealt with although small amounts
over a period of time. of certain fat-soluble
2. It mixes the food with compounds can be
stomach acids (primarily taken up, including
hydrochloric acid to kill aspirin, other non-
bacteria ingested with steroidal anti-
food) and protease inflammatory drugs, and
(prō'tē-ās') (enzymes ethanol. These
initiating the digestion substances are well-
of proteins, primarily recognized causes of
pepsin). gastric irritation.

3. The motility (vigorous contractions stimulated by hormones) of the

gastric smooth muscle of the antrum crushes, grinds, and mixes foodstuffs
with gastric secretions, liquefying it to a form called chyme (kīm). The
chyme is then slowly forced through the pyloric canal into the small
intestine for further processing, a process called gastric emptying.
 The liver is a large organ in the
abdominal cavity. Its primary
contribution to digestion is the
production of bile. Bile, or gall, is a bitter,
yellow or green alkaline fluid , some of
which drains directly into the duodenum
(top part of the small intestine), and some
is stored in the gallbladder. It travels
through the hepatic ducts, which merge
together. Bile has several major
components:

1. Cholesterol, a fat naturally

manufactured in the liver.

2. Bile acids, also called bile salts,

break down large globules of fat
into tiny droplets that can be
more easily digested and absorbed.
3. The liver breaks down hemoglobin (protein that carries oxygen) in old red
blood cells, resulting in a product called bilirubin. This pigment becomes a part
of the bile, and is responsible for the characteristic brown color of the feces.
After the bile is produced in the
liver, it travels through several
hepatic ducts to the
gallbladder. The gallbladder (or
cholecyst) is a pear-shaped
organ that stores about 50ml,
or 1.7 fluid ounces of the bile.
While being stored, the bile
becomes more concentrated
than when it left the liver,
increasing its potency and
intensifying its effect. When
food (chyme) containing fat
leaves the stomach, the
gallbladder contracts. As it
contracts, bile is discharged
from the gallbladder through
the cystic duct and common
bile duct and into the
duodenum of the small
intestine.
 The bile breaks down or “emulsifies” the fat
globules and neutralizes acids in the partly digested
food, thus aiding in their absorption in the small
intestine. Since bile increases the absorption of
fats, it is an important part of the absorption of the
fat-soluble vitamins D, E, K, and A.
In the absence of bile, fats become
indigestible and are instead excreted in
feces. This causes significant problems,
as the small intestine below the
duodenum is not adapted for processing
fats. In this case, the feces lacks its
characteristic brown color and instead
are white or grey, and greasy.
Bile is made up of several components, one
being cholesterol that was manufactured in
the liver. Occasionally this cholesterol will
fuse together into lumps, forming Gallbladder
anatomy
gallstones. Gallstones can painfully
obstruct the cystic and common bile ducts
leading away from the gallbladder. There are
several medical and surgical options to
alleviate distress.
 The pancreas is a long, irregularly shaped gland
organ lying behind the stomach. It secretes
pancreatic juice into the duodenum via the
pancreatic duct which merges with the common
The pancreas’ role in digestion is so
vital that insufficient exocrine (non- bile duct. This pancreatic juice contains
hormonal) secretion by the pancreas digestive enzymes and bicarbonate ions.
could lead to starvation, even if
person is consuming adequate
quantities of high quality food.

Pancreatic juice is alkaline in nature

due to the high concentration of
bicarbonate ions (hydrogen
carbonate). This is useful in quickly
and efficiently neutralizing the acidic
gastric acid in the chyme, which would
damage the lining of the duodenum
(dū'ə-dē'nəm, dū-ŏd'n-əm) .
The digestive enzymes of the
pancreatic juice work on the
macromolecular nutrients - proteins,
fats and starch, which must be broken
down much further before their
constitutents can be absorbed into the
bloodstream.
 The small intestine, bowel, is approximately
23 feet long. It is where the nutrients from
the food are absorbed into the bloodstream.
It can be subdivided into 3 parts.
1. Duodenum (dū'ə-dē'nəm, dū-ŏd'n-əm) : a short section that receives
secretions from the pancreas and liver via the pancreatic and common bile
ducts; most chemical digestion occurs here; the acidic chyme with a creamy
consistency is converted to chyle, which is alkaline with a watery consistency.
2. Jejunum (jə-jū'nəm) : nearly 40% of VILLI of the jejunum
the small intestine; its layers of mucous and ileum
membrane called the epithelium (ĕp'ə-
thē'lē-əm) are covered in tiny projections
called villi (vĭl'ī) and even smaller
microvilli, which increase the surface
area of tissue available to absorb
nutrients from the chyle through the
membranes into the bloodstream (and
eventually on to the body tissues)

3. Ileum (ĭl'ē-əm) : nearly 60% of the small intestine; absorbs vitamin B12;
contains enzymes responsible for the final stages of protein and carbohydrate
digestion; completes absorption of water and electrolytes (sodium, chloride,
and potassium) and dietary organic molecules; empties into the large intestine
 The many enzymes from the
pancreas are mixed with the chyle in
the duodenum. These enzymes are
The villi are hair-like protrusions INTO the activated in the small intestine as
intestine. Their purpose is to slow the needed to digest carbohydrates,
passage of food, and to allow food fats, and proteins:
particles to be captured in among these
Sucrase, maltase, and lactase -
finger-like villi -- so that the blood inside
break down complex sugars
the villi can absorb the nutrients in the
into simple glucose 
food. Villus capillaries (tiny blood vessels)
Lipase – for the digestion of
collect amino acids and and simple sugars
lipids (fats) into fatty acids
taken up by the villi into the blood stream.
Trypsin – for the digestion of
Villus lacteals collect absorbed fatty acids.
proteins into amino acids

Other intestinal features:

Intestinal Crypts - these secrete enzymes, hormones
and mucus
Peyer's Patches - lymph nodes (filter or trap foreign
particles and contain white blood cells); found
primarily in the ileum, preventing bacteria from
entering the bloodstream
Brunner's Glands - these produce an alkaline mucus
which protects the intestinal wall from gastric acid
 The function of the large intestine, or
bowel, is to absorb the remaining
water from indigestible food matter,
store unusable food matter (wastes),
and then eliminate the wastes from the
body. The large intestine is subdivided
into the cecum and colon. It is only 4-5
feet long.
The cecum is a pouch at the beginning of
the large intestine that joins the small
intestine to the large intestine with the
ileocaecal valve (il·ē·ō¦sē·kəl) that
Appendix prevents food from returning to the small
intestine. This transition area expands in
Rectum diameter, allowing undigested and
unabsorbed food to travel from the small
intestine to the large.

The colon has three main parts: the ascending colon extending from the
cecum up the right side of the abdomen; the transverse colon across the
upper abdomen, which absorb fluids and salts; and the descending colon
down the left side of the abdomen and ending with the sigmoid colon
where it is connected to the rectum, which holds the resulting waste.
 Undigested chyle proceeds from the
small intestine into the large intestine,
where it dries out and becomes
concentrated, as liquid is absorbed.
Solid wastes, feces, remain for
excretion. Propulsion of the waste along
the muscular colon walls is slower than
the small intestine. Movement is
stimulated by food and exercise, but is
diminished during sleep. A mucus layer
eases the passage of waste products
and protects the walls of the intestine
No villi are present on the interior walls of from the bacteria within it.
the large intestine; they are smooth

The appendix, a small, hollow, finger-like pouch, hangs at the end of the
cecum. It does not appear to be useful to the digestive process.
Over 700 species of bacteria inhabit the colon, where they ferment dietary fiber
and other unabsorbed substances such as complex sugars. Absorption of
nutrients from the large intestine is minimal, but does include small amounts of
vitamin K and vitamin B produced by the bacteria. During the fermentation
process, flatus (flā'təs) (gas) is produced. Flatus is a mixture of nitrogen and
carbon dioxide, hydrogen, methane, and hydrogen sulphide, some of which
has a foul odor when voluntarily or involuntarily expelled...flatulence.
The rectum is where feces
are stored until they leave
the digestive system,
through the anus as a
bowel movement. The
rectum ampulla is the
dilated section at the top
of the rectum.
As the rectal walls expand due to waste material filling it, stretch receptors
from the nervous system located in the rectal walls stimulate the desire to
defecate or eliminate the waste. If the urge is not acted upon, the material in the
rectum is often returned to the colon where more water is absorbed. If
defecation is delayed for a prolonged period the fecal matter may harden,
resulting in constipation.

Intestinal gas in the rectum is air that is ingested through the nose and mouth
while eating and drinking and gases produced within the digestive tract. The
latter are the result of incomplete digestion or as a by-product of certain
foods, especially those containing complex sugars such as beans, lentils,
milk, onions, radishes, sweet potatoes, cheese, cashews, Jerusalem
artichokes, oats, yeast in breads, broccoli, cabbage, and dairy products.
 The anus is the external opening of the rectum situated
between the buttocks. Closure is controlled by the
internal and external sphincter muscles.

Defecation or egestion is the act or

process by which we eliminate solid or
semisolid waste material (feces) from
the digestive tract via the anus. This
occurs anywhere from a few times
daily to a few times weekly. Those
muscular contractions known as
peristalsis move the fecal matter
through the colon towards the rectum.
The internal anal sphincter responds
to the pressure and involuntarily
relaxes.

During defecation the chest muscles, diaphragm, abdominal wall muscles,

and pelvic diaphragm all exert pressure on the digestive tract and ventilation
temporarily ceases as the lungs push the chest diaphragm down in order to
exert pressure. Blood pressure rises throughout the body and the amount of
blood pumped by the heart decreases. For defecation, we have to consciously
relax the external anal sphincter muscle to expel the waste.
 WORKSHEET
Fundus

Antrum
Pancreatic duct