The Periodic Table: Putting the

Elements in Order
 Pre-Learning Check
1.Is there a need for chemical
elements to be systematically
arranged? Why?
2.What can be derived when
chemical elements are well
arranged?
Development of the Periodic Table
How did the modern periodic table evolve
through time?

Various attempts were made by notable

scientists to arrange the chemical
elements in an orderly and logical
manner. Each had its own basis, but all of
them had the same purpose. From these
early attempts evolved the modern
periodic table.
Lavoisier’s Classification
One of the first attempts to arrange
the elements into groups was carried out
by Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier, a French
chemist. In 1789, he published a book
presenting a list of common elements and
substances (including heat and light)
divided into the following four groups.
Lavoisier based in his classification on
physical properties such as hardness,
malleability, and luster.
• First group – includes heat, light, and gases such as
oxygen and nitrogen
• Second group – includes elements which form acidic
oxides, such as sulfur and phosphorus
• Third group – includes metals such as copper, tin,
lead, and zinc
• Fourth group – includes the simple earthy salt-
forming substances such as the oxides of calcium,
barium, aluminum, and silicon

This classification is deemed limited since there is

no way of classifying elements and substances with
both metallic and nonmetallic properties; they do not
belong to a specific group.
Dbereiner’s Triads
In 1817, Johann Wolfgang Dbereiner’s , a
German chemist, reported that several groups
of elements (with each group consisting of three
elements) had similar physical and chemical
properties. He called these groups triads. He
also discovered a numerical pattern among the
middle member in a triad is approximately equal
to the arithmetic average of the atomic masses
of the elements in a triad; that is, the atomic
mass of the middle member in a triad is
approximately equal to arithmetic average of
the atomic masses of the two others.
 Table 13-1. Dbereiner’s Triads
Triad Relative Atomic Masses
Li Na K 7 23 39
S Se Te 32 79 128
Cl Br I 35.5 80 127
Ca Sr Ba 40 88 137

Until 1850, scientists attempted to arrange

other elements into triads but they could only
find a few more sets of elements that
adhered to Dbereiner’s law of triad.
Furthermore, the classification into triads
made it possible for dissimilar elements to be
grouped together.
Chancourtois’s Telluric Helix
In 1862, Alexander-Emile Béguyer de
Chancourtois, a French chemist, conceived
the idea of arranging the elements
according to their atomic masses. He
plotted the atomic masses in a spiral
around the surface of a cylinder initially
divided into 16 sections. He called this
device the telluric helix. Elements with
similar physical and chemical properties
appeared to fall on the same vertical trip.
 From the results of the telluric helix,
Chancourtois asserted that the
properties of elements are properties
of certain numbers. He was the first
scientist to notice the periodicity of
elements when they were arranged in
the order of their atomic masses.
However, Chancourtois’s idea gained
no supporters during his time.
Newlands’s Law of Octaves
In 1864, John Alexander Reina Newlands, an
English analytical chemist, noticed that if
elements were arranged according to increasing
atomic masses, any element is somehow similar
to the eight element following it. Likewise, the
fifteenth element resembled the first and the
eighth; in other words, an interval of six
elements separated similar elements. Because
of Newlands’s musical background, he called
this regularly the law of octaves, an analogy to
the eight notes in an octave of music.
Table 13-2. Newlands’s Arrangement of Elements into Octaves
H Li Ga B C N O

F Na Mg Al Si P S

Cl K Ca Cr Ti Mn Fe

Co, Ni Cu Zn Y In As Se

Br Rb Sr Ce, La Zr Di, Mo Ro, Ru

Pd Ag Cd U Sn Sb Te

I Cs Ba, V Ta W Nb Au

Pt, Ir Tl Pb Th Hg Bi Os
 Newlands’s proposed arrangement of
elements was criticized for many years.
When he presented his idea to the Royal
Society of London, he was even sarcastically
asked if he ever attempted to arrange the
elements in alphabetical order. His
contribution to the development of the
periodic table was only acknowledged after
the works of Mendeleev and Meyer were
recognized. The Royal Society of London
belatedly honored him for his original work
on the law of octaves.
Meyer’s Atomic Volume Curves
In 1870, Julius Lothar Meyer, a
German chemist, plotted the atomic
volume of elements against their
relative atomic masses. From his
graph, Meyer created a table that
showed a periodic arrangement of
elements. The first version of this
table had 28 elements, while the
expanded version had 57.
Mendeleev’s Periodic table
In 1869, Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev, a Russian
chemist, came up with his own periodic table by
examining the properties of the then-known
elements. He prepared a set of cards on which the
properties of each element were tabulated on one
card. By arranging and rearranging these cards, he
realized that certain properties were repeated
several times when the cards arranged according
to increasing atomic mass. He noticed that a
periodicity occurred in the properties of the
elements and summarized this in a table.
 Mendeleev line up the elements in a horizontal row,
according to increasing mass. Every time he came to an
element with properties similar to the one already in
the row, he started a new one. The columns then
contained elements that had similar properties. His
periodic table initially contained 63 elements.

The most important feature of Mendeleev’s periodic

table is that he allotted empty spaces for the elements
yet to be discovered. Although it has limitations and
flaws, Mendeleev’s periodic table served as a guide to
predict new elements, identify elements with similar
properties, and detect inaccuracies in the atomic
masses of elements already known.
Moseley’s Works on Atomic Numbers
Because of Mendeleev and Meyer, it was established, as
the periodic law, that the properties of elements are
periodic functions of their atomic masses. However, in 1913,
Henry Moseley, an English physicist, suggested that atomic
mass was not the property that governed periodicity.
Working on the x-ray emission spectra of several metals, he
speculated that the atomic properties are related more to
the atomic number and less to the atomic mass.

 Because of Moseley’s proposal the flaws of Mendeleev’s

table were corrected. The modern periodic law thus states
that the properties of the elements are periodic functions
of their atomic numbers.
The Modern Periodic Table
What are the distinct features of the modern
periodic table? How significant are these features?

From the periodic tables of Mendeleev and

Meyer, and Moseley’s work on atomic numbers, the
modern periodic table was formed.

In the modern periodic table, the elements are

arranged in order of increasing atomic numbers. Its
organization is also related to the electronic
structure of the elements. Specifically, the periodic
table is based on the configuration of the electrons
in the outermost shells of the atoms of the
elements.
The Periods
The horizontal rows of elements in the periodic
table are called periods. All the elements in a period
have the same number of main energy levels occupied
by the electrons. The seven periods in the modern
periodic table are described as follows:

• Periodic 1 has two elements corresponding to the

number of electrons in the s sublevel. The electrons
of these two elements (hydrogen and helium)
occupy only one main energy level.

• Periods 2 and 3 each have eight elements

corresponding to the eight electrons in the s and p
sublevels.
• Periods 4 and 5 each have 18 elements
corresponding to the 18 electrons in the s, p,
and d sublevels.

• Period 6 has 32 elements corresponding to

the number of electrons in the s, p, d and f
sublevels. The 14 f electrons correspond to
the 14 elements in the lanthanide series.

• Period 7 includes 14 elements in the actinide

series. The period is now complete up to
element 118.
The Groups
The elements in the periodic table can be
classified into A and B families. Each family
consists of eight groups, with each group
occupying one vertical column. However,
elements in Group 8B (Group 8 , family B) occupy
three columns. Thus, the modern periodic table
consists of 18 vertical columns.

elements in Group 1A have properties

different from those in Group 1B. Thus, elements
in the A and B families do not have similar
properties even if they have the same group
number.
 The elements in the A families
are collectively called
representative elements and those
in the B families are called
transition elements. The two rows
at the very bottom of the periodic
table – the lanthanide series and
the actinide series – are called the
inner transition elements.
The IUPAC Grouping
Letters A and B designate the families of representative
and transition elements, respectively (as adopted in this
textbook). This is a conventional practice which originated
from the United States. Europe has a different and almost
completely reverse convention.
In an attempt to eliminate the confusion over the A
and B families, the International Union of Pure and Applied
Chemistry (IUPAC) recommended, as early as 1984, a
different format for grouping the elements in the modern
periodic table. In this system, the columns are labeled with
Hindu-Arabic numerals from 1 through 18. thus, hydrogen
is in group 1 and the halogens and noble gases are in
Groups 17 and 18, respectively. This proposal has sparked
much controversy and has not been adopted in full.
The Division Between Metals and Nonmetals
In general, metals are solid at room temperature. They
are ductile, malleable, and can form alloys and conduct
electricity well. Nonmetals, on the other hand, have a wide
range of properties. They can be solid, liquids, or gases at
room temperature. In general, they are poor conductors of
electricity. In the periodic table, all nonmetals lie to the right
of the zigzag line that passes between Ai and Si, Ge, and As,
Sb and Te, and Po and At. This line is often called Hays-
McDaniel line.

Most of the elements that lie beside the zigzag line have
both metallic and nonmetallic properties. These elements
are called metalloids. Some of them are used as
semiconductors in the electronics industry.
The Elements in the Periodic Table
All elements – from hydrogen to
oganesson – have been discovered to
exist either naturally or synthetically. The
most recently discovered elements are
nihonium, moscovium, tennessine, and
oganesson. These four elements were
confirmed by IUPAC in 2015 and were
officially named in 2016. they now
complete the seventh row of the modern
periodic table.
The Alkali Metals
The elements in the leftmost column
of the periodic table, the Group 1A
elements, are known as the alkali metals
(except for hydrogen, which is not a
metal but a nonmetal). The word alkali
comes from the Arabic word al-qali,
meaning “ashes”. The ashes of certain
plants contain compounds of these
metals.
 Alkali metals are highly reactive and melt at low
temperatures. They react vigorously with water to
produce hydrogen and basic solutions. They have
to be stored under an inert substance like
kerosene, and because of their reactivity, alkali
metals are never found in their free, elemental
form in nature, but are always in combined form as
compounds.

Sodium chloride (NaCl), a compound of sodium

(Na), is fundamental part of the diet of humans
and animals. Potassium (K) compounds are
important nutrients for plants.
The Alkaline Earth Metals
The second group of the periodic
table, Group 2A, is composed of metals
that occur naturally but only in
compound forms. The elements in this
group are known as alkaline earth metals
because they form alkaline solutions and
are obtained from mineral ores which
were once called earths. These metals
are generally harder and less reactive
than the alkali metals.
 Magnesium (Mg) and calcium (Ca)
are the sixth and fifth most abundant
elements, respectively, in Earth’s
crust. Calcium is one of the
important elements that make up
our teeth and bones, and it is
present in large deposits of
limestone. Radium (Ra), the heaviest
alkaline earth metal, is radioactive
and is used in some radiation
treatments for cancer.
The Aluminum Group
Group 3A consists of one
metalloid (boron), four metals
(aluminum, gallium, indium, and
thallium) that are fairly reactive, and
a recently added radioactive
member, nihonium. With aluminum
as the most popular and useful
among the group, Group 3A is
referred to as the aluminum group.
 Aluminum (Al) is the most abundant
metal in Earth’s crust. It is widely used as a
low-density structural and construction
material, as well as a basic raw material in
kitchenware. Boron (B) occurs naturally in
the compound borax (sodium borate).
Borax is used as a component of laundry
and cleaning products, glass and ceramics,
fertilizers, papers, paints, and fire
retardants. Gallium (Ga) is found in gallium
arsenide, which is an excellent
semiconducting material.
The Carbon Group
Group 4A consists of the nonmetal
carbon (C), the metalloids silicon (Si)
and germanium (Ge), and the metals tin
(Sn), lead (Pb), and flerovium the
carbon group. Variations in properties
occur in the group because of the
change from nonmetalic to metallic
nature of its elements.
 Carbon is the major constituent of the most
chemical compounds that make up living things.
Carbon is unique because of the unlimited
number of compounds this element can form.
Silicon constitutes the bulk of most rocks, sand,
clay, and soil. Tin alloys are commonly used in
utensils and weapons. Lead is an addictive in
paints and was widely used in plumbing and
water pipelines. Its toxic effects on human beings
led to its disuse in water pipes, gasoline, and
paints. Flerovium, like the other recently
discovered elements, is presently used only in
research.
The Nitrogen Group
Nitrogen (N), a nonmetal, is the first
element in Group 5A. The other elements
are phosphorus (P), a nonmetal; arsenic
(As) and antimony (Sb), which are
metalloids; and bismuth (Bi) and
moscovium (Mc), both metals. Like the
Group 4A elements, the elements in this
group vary in properties.
 Nitrogen gas makes up more than three-
fourths of Earth’s atmosphere. The most
abundant element in the atmosphere, it is
used in the preparation of ammonia and
soil fertilizers. Phosphorus is an essential
component of bones and teeth, as well as
an important plant nutrient. It is also used
in the production of matches and
explosives.
The Oxygen Group
Group 6A consists of three
nonmetals – oxygen (O), sulfur (S),
and selenium (Se) one metalloid –
tellurium (Te); and two metals –
polonium (Po) and livermorium (Lv).
With oxygen as the first element
and the only gas in the group, Group
6A is called the oxygen group.
The Halogens
Group 7A constitutes the halogens and is
composed of the nonmetals fluorine (F), chlorine
(Cl), bromine (Br), iodine (I), and astatine (At). It
also includes tennessine (Ts), whose metallic
property has not been fully characterized yet. The
name halogen comes from the Greek word hals,
meaning “salt”, and genes, meaning “forming”.
The halogens combine readily with metals to form
salts like table salt (sodium chloride). The halogens
are among the most reactive of all elements.
The Noble Gases
Helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar),
krypton (Kr), xenon (Xe), radon (Rn) and
organesson (Og) constitute Group 8A. They
all rare gases, not very abundant on earth,
and the least chemically reactive elements.
The name inert gases, another term for
this group, denotes the general lack of
reactivity of elements belonging to this
group.
The Transition Elements
Following Group 2A is a series of
elements called transition elements, which
completely fill the fourth, fifth, sixth,
seventh periods in the center of the table.
These are all metals belonging to family B.
Some of them, like iron (Fe), are abundant
in nature and commercially important.
Other are much less abundant and less
reactive, but are utilized for their beauty
and durability, like silver (Ag), gold (Au), and
platinum (Pt).
 Two rows at the bottom of the table
make room for the lanthanides and
actinides (series of elements following
lanthanum and actinium, respectively).
The elements in these two series are not
very abundant and not commercially
important yet, although lanthanide
compounds are now used in colored TV
picture tubes. Uranium (U) serves as fuel
for nuclear plants and americium (Am) is
used in smoke detectors.
Electronic Configuration and the Periodic
Table
Through the aid of the periodic table, an element’s
electronic configuration can be determined. Conversely,
when one knows the element’s electronic
configuration, one can locate its position in the periodic
table. Let us illustrate these ideas in the following
examples:

1. Consider sodium. Its atomic number, also its number

of electrons, is 11. The electronic configuration of the
Na atom is

12 2 3
2. Consider calcium. It is in Period 4 and
Group 2A. The highest main energy level
that the electrons of a calcium atom can
occupy is 4 (equal to its period number)
and the total number of valence electrons
is 2 (equal to its group number). According
to these values and the principles of
electron distribution, the complete
electronic configuration for Ca can be
written as

12 2 3
The highest main energy level
occupied is 3. This number
corresponds to the period where Na
is located in the periodic table. The
number of electrons in the
outermost shell (valence electrons) is
1; this is equal to the group number
where Na belongs.
 The following points should be considered in
determining an element’s electronic configuration and
position in the periodic table:

1. For Family A elements, the number of valence electrons

(electrons in the outermost energy level) of an atom
corresponds to its group number.

2. The highest main energy level, or the number of

occupied main energy levels by the electrons of an atom,
corresponds to the period where the element is located
in the periodic table.

3. Elements belonging to the same group have a similar last

sublevel configuration (LSC). Thus, the periodic table can
be divided into four regions or blocks as follows:
• The s block consists of Groups 1A and
2A. The LSCs of these two groups are
nand n, respectively.

• The p block includes Groups 3A, 4A, 5A,

6A, 7A, and 8A. The LSCs of these
groups are characterized by the
stepwise addition of electrons in the p
orbital. Thus, the last sublevel
configuration of the groups belonging to
this block are n, n, n, n, n, and n,
respectively.
• The d block includes the transition elements,
arranged in the periodic as Groups 3B, 4B, 5B,
6B, 7B, 8b, 1B, and 2B. The LSCs of the elements
in these groups involve the stepwise addition of
electrons to the d orbital with LSCs as follows,
respectively: (n – 1), (n – 1), (n – 1), (n – 1), . . . ,
(n – 1).

• The f block consists of the lanthanides and the

actinides. The LSCs of the elements in this block
theoretically involve the stepwise addition of
electrons in the f orbital. Thus, the LSCs of the
elements here ranges from (n – 2) to (n – 2) .
Trends in the Periodic Table
What are the bases of the arrangement of
elements in the periodic table? What relationships
can be derived from such arrangements?

Some of the many properties that distinguish

elements from one another are atomic size,
ionization energy, metallic property, and electron
affinity.

These properties can be predicted by looking at

the location of an element in the periodic table.
Atomic Size
The size of an atom can be described
in terms of its atomic radius. For metals,
the atomic radius r is half the distance d
between the two nuclei of two
neighboring metal atoms. For elements
that exist as simple diplomatic
molecules, the atomic radius r is defined
as half the distance d between the
centers of the atoms in the molecule.
 Figure 13-8 shows the atomic radii (in
picometers) of the representative
elements. Moving from top to bottom in a
group, atomic size increases. For alkali
metals (Group 1A), their outermost
electrons are in the ns orbitals. Since
orbital size increases with increasing main
energy level n, the size of the atoms
increases from H (n = 1) to Cs (n = 6). This
same reasoning applies to the elements
in the other groups.
 The increase in main energy levels also
causes an increase in the shielding effect
offered by the inner electrons, making the
outermost electrons less attracted to the
nucleus, and consequently making the
atoms bigger. Shielding effect, also called
screening effect, is the shielding of the
outer electrons from the full of the protons
in the nucleus. This shielding is done by the
electrons in the inner filled sets of orbitals.
Ionization Energy
Ionization energy is the minimum amount of
energy required to remove an electron from a
gaseous atom. The value of ionization energy
indicates how “tightly” the electron is held toward
the nucleus. Thus, the higher the ionization energy,
the more difficult it is to remove the electron.

For an atom with many electrons, the energy

required to removed the electron with the lowest
energy is called the first ionization energy. The
removal of the electron with the second lowest
energy thus requires the second ionization energy,
and so on.
 Removing an electron from an atom
produces a positive ion. It is more difficult to
remove an electron from a positive ion than to
remove it from a neutral atom. Thus, second
ionization energy is always greater than the
first.

Table 13-3 lists the ionization energies of

the first 10 elements. Using the values listed in
this table, compare the first ionization
energies of the elements in Period 2 (Li, Be, B,
C, N, O, F, and Ne). What is the general trend?
Table 13-3. The Ionization Energies of the First 10 Elements
Atomic Ionization Energy (kJ/mol)
Number Element
First Second Third Fourth Fifth Sixth
1 H 1312
2 He 2373 5251
3 Li 520 7300 11815
4 Be 899 1757 14850 21 005
5 B 801 2430 3660 25 000 32 820
6 C 1086 2350 4620 6220 38 000 47 261
7 N 1400 2860 4580 7500 9400 53 000
8 O 1314 3390 5300 7470 11 000 13 000
9 F 1680 3370 6050 8400 11 000 15 200
10 Ne 2080 3950 6120 9370 12 200 15 000
 The effective nuclear charge increases from left to
right across a period. Although the electron to be
removed in each case is at the same time main energy
level, the increasing attraction of the electron to the
nucleus requires more energy to remove it. Thus,
ionization energy increases from left to right across a
period in the periodic table (figure 13-10).

As we go down a group, the atomic size increases and

thus the further the distance of the outermost
electron(s) from the nucleus. The shielding effect of the
electrons in the inner energy levels increases; the
effective nuclear charge decreases; and less energy is
required to remove the outermost electron. Therefore,
ionization energy decreases from top to bottom within a
group (figure 13-10).
Metallic Property
The ability of an element’s atom to lose an electron is
a possible measure of the element’s metallic property.
Metals are more likely to lose electrons than nonmetals.
On this basis, we can establish the periodic trend for
metallic property.

As we move from top to bottom within a group,

atomic size increases and the ability of the atom to lose
its outermost electron(s) becomes increasingly greater. In
this case, metallic property increases. As we move from
left to right across a period, the effect of nuclear charge
on the properties of elements become more significant.
Therefore, metallic property decreases from left to right
across a period.
Electron Affinity
Some atoms have a greater affinity or “liking” for
electrons than the other atoms. When an atom in the
gaseous phase acquires an electron to form a negative
ion, the amount of energy change that occurs during the
process called electron affinity. It is a mesure of the
atom’s tendency to attract an electron.

By convention, a negative value is assigned to

electron affinity because the acquisition of electron(s)
generally comes with the release of energy. This means
that the more negative the electron affinity value is, the
greater is the tendency of the atom to accept an
electron.
Table 13-4. Electron Affinities (in kJ/mol) of Representative
Elements
1A 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A 8A
H He
-73 *
Li Be B C N O F Ne
-60 * -27 -122 * -141 -328 *
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
-53 * -42 -134 -72 -200 -349 *
K Ca Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
-48 -2 -41 -119 -78 -195 -326 *
Rb Sr In Sn Sb Te I Xe
-47 -5 -29 -107 -101 -190 -295 *
Cs Ba Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
-46 -14 -36 -35 -91 -183 -270 *
 From the table, it can be noted that the
halogens (Group 7A) have the most
negative electrons affinity values. This can
be explained by the fact that by accepting
an electron, a halogen atom becomes an
anion and assumes a stable configuration
similar to that of a noble gas. On the other
hand, noble gases (Group 8A) have no
stable electron affinity values. This is
because they are mostly not chemically
reactive; they “do not like” to share their
electrons.
 Although there are deviations for some elements,
the general trend increasing electron affinities (that is,
electron affinity values becoming more negative) from
left to right across a period is evident in table 13-4. This
suggests that nonmetals tend to accept electrons more
readily than metals do.

Although electron affinity values differ very little

within a group, the trend of decreasing electron
affinities (that is, becoming less negative) from top to
bottom is evident in most groups.

The trends in electron affinity can be explained in

the same way as those for other properties in this
section.