Sed Eng 212:

LANGUAGE, CULTURE AND SOCIETY

Module 2 - Multilingualism and

Speech Communities
Introduction
Each society is a speech community which shares a language. It is
composed of people from different social orientations who are identified
according to their social status, the circle they move in, or the different
functions they perform in the society. These differences in social
orientations are bases for variations in language use within the
community.
The term variety (or sometimes code), according to Holmes (2013), is
used by sociologists to refer to any set of linguistic forms which patterns
according to social factors. It is a sociolinguistic term referring to
language in context and to a set of linguistic forms used under specific
social circumstances, i.e., with a distinctive social distribution. Variety is
therefore a broad term which includes different accents, different
linguistic styles, different dialects, and even different languages which
contrast with each other for social reasons.
 In this context, multilingualism brings in a concept which can refer to
either the language use, the competence of an individual, or the
language situation in a nation or society. However, at the individual level
it is generally subsumed under bilingualism. This is probably because,
while there are possibly more bilinguals in the world than monolinguals,
there are not perceived to be so many people who use more than two
languages habitually.
Multilinguals have varying degrees of command of the different
repertoires. The differences in competence in the various languages
might range from command of a few lexical items, formulaic expressions
such as greetings, and rudimentary conversational skills all the way to
excellent command of the grammar and vocabulary, and specialized
register and styles. Sridhar (1996) adds that multilinguals develop
competence in each of the codes to the extent that they need it and for
the contexts in which each of the languages is used, thus the context
determines language choice.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the chapter, students are expected to:
• Determine the domains of language use and its
relevance to language choice
• Identify the various factors that affect language
maintenance and language shift; and
• Identify and differentiate the linguistic varieties
that are used in various multilingual nations
Topic 1: Language Choice in Multilingual Communities

In a multilingual community, the multilingual speaker needs

to make the appropriate language choice which essentially
depends on the domain of usage and the linguistic repertoire of
speech participants. Thus, language choice will always be an
important factor to effective communication. Who are you
talking to, the social context of your speech, the function of the
conversation, and topic of the discussion are important factors
that determine the choice of the language. Hence, in choosing a
language, domains of the language use play an essential role in
which each domain has its own addressee, setting, and topic.
1.1 Domains of Language Use
In 1932, Schmidt-Rohr first proposed the domain concept as an
attempt to classify different areas of language use in multilingual
societies which are significant for language choice. It is later developed
by Joshua Fishman in 1970s. Based from Marjohan A. (1988) as cited in
Valentino, Sari, Nugraheni, and Santika (2013), Fishman (1972) states that
the factors which influence the concept of domain are topic, role
relation, and locale. He says that the topic can be a regulator of language
use in multilingual settings. This means that someone changes his
language to the interlocutor’s language when discussing certain matters.
Marjohan A. (1988) also explains that role relation means that the
languages a person uses are determined by the interlocutors you speak
with. Locale, on the other hand, is the place where the conversations
take place which influences the language use.
 Also, according to Marjohan A. (1988) as cited in Valentino et al
(2013), Tanner (1967) specifies that there are also factors of choice to be
setting in locale. The factors are the content/topic, social distance, and
motivational factors. In social distance, the vertical and horizontal
dimensions are classified. The vertical dimensions mean that the
languages used are determined by the relative position of someone that
is compared with others. A person has to respect someone who is above
him in terms of social status, age, or marital status. Meanwhile,
horizontal dimensions speak about the relative closeness of someone
with others. A person tends to use a low code if he speaks to someone
who is close to him in terms of the degree of friendship, sex, educational
background, ethnic background, or religious background. Lastly,
someone’s motivational factors are seen when someone is interested to
converse with the interlocutor or interested about the topics even they
are manipulative.
 On Domains of Language Use
Table 1. Domains of Language Use
Domain Addressee Setting Topic
Family Parent Home Planning a family party
How to play beach
Friendship Friend Beach
tennis
Choosing the Sunday
Religion Priest Church
liturgy
Education Teacher School Solving a math problem
Employment Employer Workplace Applying for a promotion

Source: Based on Fishman (1972:22) as cited from Holmes (2013:22)

1.2 Diglossia
Diglossia is a linguistic phenomenon found in many multilingual
speech communities. It describes a specific type of sociolinguistic
situation wherein a clear differentiation in function between the
languages or language varieties used in bilingual/multilingual
communities is manifested. One linguistic variety is the high variety (H-
variety) which is the prestige variety - generally a standard variety –that is
typically reserved for official functions in more formal speech situations
in the public sphere (e.g. in government, in written education, for
religious service, or by the media).
 The other linguistic variety is the low variety (L-variety) which is
exclusively used in and restricted to informal speech situations in the
private sphere. It is usually has less prestige than the H-variety and is
made of the vernacular varieties used at home for informal everyday
conversations. This specialization of function between H and L is seen as
the most important criterion for the classification of a speech community
as diglossic. While H is appropriate only in formal situations, L is only used
in informal situations.
H and L differ from each other both linguistically and socially.
Linguistically, they do so with respect to grammar, phonology, and
vocabulary; socially, they differ in function and prestige, as well as in
literary heritage, acquisition, standardization, and stability.

 On Diglossia
Table 2.Differentiation of H-Variety and L-Variety
Criteria for
H-Variety L-Variety
Diglossia
It is usually used for official It is exclusively used in
functions in more formal speech and restricted to informal
1. Function
situations in the public sphere. speech situations in the
private sphere.
In most diglossias examined, H The L-variety is felt to be
was more highly valued than L less worthy, corrupt,
was. The H variety is that of `broken', vulgar,
2. Prestige `great' literature, canonical undignified, etc.
religious texts, ancient poetry, of
public speaking, of pomp and
circumstance.
 Criteria for
H-Variety L-Variety
Diglossia
A sizeable body of written literature The L-variety is sometimes
in H is held in high esteem by the denied to exist, or is claimed to
speech community. In most diglossic be only spoken by lesser mortals
languages, the H-variety is thought (servants, women, children). In
3. Literary to be the language. some traditions, L-variety would
Heritage be used to show certain
characters as rustic, comical,
uneducated, etc.

H-variety is acquired through  L-variety is the variety learned

schooling/ formal education. first; it is the mother tongue, the
The grammar of H is learned in language of the home. The
terms of rules and norms to be grammatical structure of L is
4. Acquisition imitated. learned without explicit
discussion of grammatical
concepts.
 Criteria for
H-Variety L-Variety
Diglossia
H is strictly standardized; L is rarely standardized in the
grammars, dictionaries, canonical traditional sense, or if grammars
texts, etc. exist for it, written by exist, they are written by
native grammarians. There is a outsiders. For the L variety, there
5. Standard- strong tradition of grammatical is no settled orthography and
ization study of the H form of the there is wide variation in
language. The orthography is well pronunciation, grammar, and
established and has little variation. vocabulary.

Diglossias are generally stable, persisting for centuries or even

millennia. Occasionally L-varieties gain domains and displace the H-
variety, but H only displaces L if H is the mother tongue of an elite,
usually in a neighboring polity. The communicative tensions arisen in
6. Stability diglossia situation may be resolved by the use of relatively uncodified,
unstable, intermediate forms of the language and repeated
borrowings of vocabulary items from H to L.
 Criteria for
H-Variety L-Variety
Diglossia
H is more rule-governed. H has grammatical categories not present in
L and has an inflectional system of nouns and verbs which is much
Grammar reduced or totally absent in L. Grammars of H are more complex than
the grammars of L-variety. They have more complex tense systems,
gender systems, agreement, syntax than L-variety.
Lexicon is often somewhat shared, but generally there is
differentiation; H has vocabulary that L lacks, and vice-versa. H
includes in its total lexicon technical terms and learned expressions
Lexicon which have no regular L equivalents. L includes popular expressions
and the names of very homely objects.

Two kinds of systems are discerned. One is where H and L share the
same phonological elements, but H may have more complicated
Phonology morphophonemics. Or, H is a special subset of the L-variety inventory
(but speakers often fail to keep the two systems separate.)

Source: Fasold (1984) as cited in Brunet (2014),and Ferguson (1959) as cited in Schiffman (1999)
 Fishman (1967), as cited in Lesada (2017), also explains that
there are four different societal situations that can exist:
1) both diglossia and bilingualism
2) bilingualism without diglossia
3) diglossia without bilingualism
4) neither diglossia nor bilingualism

In the context of the Philippine situation, we see the first case: b
oth diglossia  and bilingualism. 

 On Diglossia
1.3 Code Switching and Code Mixing
It is initially introduced in this chapter that variety or code refers to a
language in context and to a set of linguistic forms used under specific
social circumstances, i.e., with a distinctive social distribution.
It is further defined in English Language and Linguistics Online (ELLO)
that a code is a neutral term which can be used to denote a language or a
variety of language.
Code-switching is a linguistic phenomenon which occurs
in multilingual speech communities. It describes the process in which a
communicatively competent multilingual speaker alternates or switches
usually between two languages or language varieties or codes during the
same conversation.
 Code-switching is often used as a super ordinate term which also
includes code-mixing. While code-switching indicates the movement
from one code to another in a single interaction, code-mixing
specifically designates a mixture between two codes. This causes a
state of hybridization which can make it difficult to identify which
language is actually being spoken. Asen (2019) also shares the main
difference between these two concept in which code switching is
something speakers do intentionally because they want to express
themselves with a personal style or flavor, but code mixing is
something speakers might do unintentionally simply because they
don't know the correct word or phrase.

 On Code Switching/ Code Mixing

 In conclusion, it is further explained in ELLO that code-switching is
restricted to communicatively competent or
skilled bilinguals/multilinguals. It therefore needs to be distinguished
from a mixture of languages as performed by unskilled speakers who
lack knowledge in a particular code. For instance, language learners
who are not yet fully competent tend to fill a lexical gap in their
knowledge of the target language (L2) with lexical elements from their
native language (L1) while speaking. These switches are motivated by a
lack of knowledge in vocabulary and are not defined as code-switching.

 On Code Switching/ Code Mixing

1.3.1 Types of Code Mixing
Poplack (2000), as cited in Bravo-Sotelo (2020), explicates that code
switching can occur between sentences (intersentential), within a sentence
(intrasentential), or as a tag in one language into an utterance entirely in
another language (extra-sentential or tag switching). Intersentential
switches occur at the sentence or clause boundary. On the other hand,
intrasentential switches are considered as the more complex or “intimate”
type of switching, “since a code-switched segment, and those around it, must
conform to the underlying syntactic rules of two languages which bridge
constituents and link them together grammatically”. In another study, Liu
(2010), as cited from Bravo-Sotelo, notes that intrasentential switching is the
most complex form of CS as “it involves the greatest syntactic risk since the
switching between languages occurs within the clause or sentence
boundaries”. Lastly, Poplack explains that tag switches, together with single
noun switches, are described as a less intimate type, and “are often heavily
loaded in ethnic content and would be placed low on a scale of
translatability”.
Examples (Code switching between Tagalog and English):

• Intersetential Switching
Have you eaten? Kasi kung hindi pa, ipaghahain kita.

• Intrasetential Switching
So ibig mong sabihin, hindi na available ‘yung materials na kailangan natin
for the project?

• Tag Switching
These are all what we need for the trip, ‘di ba?
1.3.2 Factors affecting Code Switching or Code Mixing among Speakers
Holmes (2013) presents factors that affect code switching and code
mixing among bilingual or multilingual speakers.
a. Participants, solidarity and status
Who you are talking to brings bigger possibility of switching codes in a
conversation for social reasons. Switching code for solidarity (team spirit,
unity, harmony, etc.) can be signals of group membership and shared
ethnicity with an addressee often taken place in a short time and made
primarily for social reasons. Relationship between speakers can also
indicate the degree of formality of their interaction in code-switching.
More formal relationships, which sometimes involve status differences,
such as doctor-patient or administrator-client, are often expressed in the
H-variety, while friendlier relationships between neighbours or friends are
generally expressed in the L-variety.
b. Topic
Topic of discussion plays an essential role for multi/bilingual speakers
to switch codes in a conversation. They find it easier to discuss a particular
topic in particular codes. 

c. Affective factor
Multilinguals who are very proficient in the language they know, often
exploit them in their language repertoire. Oftentimes, we speak on our
second language (L2) when expressing our frustrations or
disappointments, and we tend to be formal at this point. Thus, a language
switch from the L variety to the H variety is perceived as expressing
disapproval or anger.

 Factors affecting Code Switching or Code Mixing among Speakers

d. Metaphorical switching
Each code represents or symbolizes a set of social meanings, and the speaker draws
on the associations of each, just as people use metaphors to represent complex
meanings. The term also reveals the fact that this kind of switching involves rhetorical
skill. Skillful code-switching operates like metaphor to enrich the communication.
e. Lexical borrowing
When speaking a second language, for instance, people will frequently use a term
from their mother tongue or first language because they don’t know the appropriate
word in their second language. These ‘switches’ are triggered by lack of vocabulary.
People may also borrow words from another language to express a concept or describe
an object for which there is no obvious word available in the language they are using.
Borrowing of this kind generally involves single words – mainly nouns – and it is
motivated by lexical need. It is very different from switching where speakers have a
genuine choice about which words or phrases they will use in which language. Borrowings
often differ from code-switches in form too. Borrowed words are usually adapted to the
speaker’s first language. They are pronounced and used grammatically as if they were
part of the speaker’s first language.

 Factors affecting Code Switching or Code Mixing among Speakers

f. Linguistic constraint
People switch codes depending on factors such as which codes are
involved, the functions of the particular switch, and the level of proficiency in
each code of the people switching. Thus, it suggests that only those who are
very proficient can switch efficiently.
 
g. Attitudes to code-switching
People are often unaware of the fact that they code-switch. When their
attention is drawn to this behavior, however, many tend to apologize for it,
condemn it and generally indicate disapproval of mixing languages. Code
switching is regarded as both negative and positive by many communities,
depending on whether the communities practice multilingual or
monolingual.

 Factors affecting Code Switching or Code Mixing among Speakers

Topic 2: Language Maintenance and Shift

Language shift happens when the language of the

wider society (majority) displaces the minority mother
tongue language over time in migrant communities or
in communities under military occupation. Therefore,
when language shift occurs, it shifts most of the time
towards the language of the dominant group, and the
result could be the eradication of the local language
(Holmes, 2013).
 Tjitrosoediro also states that language shift occurs when the
people in a particular culture or subculture change their primary
language for communication. It is also the process by which a
speech community in a contact situation which is consisting
bilingual speakers gradually stops using one of its own
vernaculars in favor of the other. The only way to ensure the
non-extinction of a language is to prevent the vernaculars from
dying. This is why the role of language maintenance is
important. However, there are three different communities that
may get a chance for their vernaculars shifted:

 On Language Maintenance and Shift

Migrant Minorities. The order of domains in which language
shift occurs may differ for different individuals and different
groups, but gradually over time the language of the wider
society displaces the minority language mother tongue. There
are many different social factors which can lead a community to
shift from using one language for most purposes to using a
different language, or from using two distinct codes in different
domains, to using different varieties of just one language for
their communicative needs. Migrant families provide an obvious
example of this process of language shift.

 On Language Maintenance and Shift

Non-migrant Communities. Migration is not always the cause of
language shift. Political, economic and social changes that can
occur within a community may result in linguistic changes too. A
dominant language which is spoken by the majority may cause
serious changes, frequently even extinction of native minority
languages.

Migrant Majorities. Language shift often reveals the influence of

political and economic factors such as the need for work. People
may shift both in their location and language for this particular
reason. People tend to shift to a language in order to succeed in
their job and to be able to make friends in a certain location.
 On Language Maintenance and Shift
2.1 Factors contributing to Language Shift
 Economic, social and political factors
-The dominant language is associated with social status and prestige
-Obtaining work is the obvious economic reason for learning another language
-Poverty may lead to migration, linguistic majority may result to social and political
dominance
 
 Demographic factors
-Language shift is faster in urban areas than rural
-The size of the group is sometimes a critical factor
-Intermarriage between groups can accelerate language shift
 
 Attitudes and values
-Language shift is slower among communities where the minority language is
highly valued, therefore when the language is seen as an important symbol of ethnic
identity, it’s generally maintained longer, and vice versa.
2.2 Language Death and Language Loss
Language loss is a gradual process; it correlates with the loss
of certain functions of the language. As language is used in
fewer and fewer domains, the dominant language taking over
most domains – the speakers proficiency in their native
language diminishes, eventually it will enable to be used in
restricted, private domains, before it becomes lost altogether.
When the last speakers die, the language dies with them – it
becomes extinct. The process of language death affects all areas
of the grammar – loss of lexical items, changes in phonology,
morphology and syntax.
2.3 Language Maintenance
The maintenance and preservation of a language can be done when it is
highly valued as an important symbol of ethnic identity for the minority
group. Families from a minority group who live near each other and see each
other frequently can help in maintaining the language with their regular
interactions. For emigrate individuals from a minority group, the degree and
frequency of contact with the homeland can contribute to the goal of
maintaining their language. Intermarriage within the same minority group is
also helpful to maintain the native language. Other than these, ensuring that
the minority group language is used at formal setting such as schools or
worship places will increase language maintenance. Also, an extended
normal family in which parents, children and grandchildren live together, and
use the same minority language can help in its maintenance. Lastly,
institutional support from some domains such as education, law,
administration, religion, and the media can make a difference between the
success and failure of maintaining a minority group language.
2.4 Language Revival
Holmes (2013) construes that sometimes a community becomes
aware that its language is in danger of disappearing and takes deliberate
steps to revitalize it. In the situation of the Welsh people, it has taken a
conscious and concerted effort to slow down the process of language
loss. This has included obtaining a Welsh-language television channel and
establishing successful bilingual education programs which extend from
preschool to tertiary level in areas such as Gwynedd. Effective bilingual
schooling has generally involved a process known as ‘immersion’.
Children are immersed in the language (like a warm bath), and it is used
to teach them science, maths and social studies, for instance. They are
not ‘taught’ the language. It is rather used as a medium of instruction to
teach them the normal school curriculum. This method has proved very
successful in many different countries as a means of learning a second
language.
Topic 3: Language Varieties and Multilingual Nations

Over half the world’s population is bilingual and many

people are multilingual. They acquire a number of
languages because they need them for different
purposes in their everyday interactions. Sociolinguists
have developed a number of ways of categorizing
language, according to their status and social functions.
3.1 Vernacular Language
Though the term vernacular is used in a number of ways but it
generally refers to a language which has not been standardized and
which does not have official status.
The many different ethnic or tribal languages used by different
groups in a multilingual speech community are referred to as vernacular
languages. Vernaculars are usually the first languages learned by people
in multilingual communities, and they are often used for a relatively
narrow range of informal functions. There are three components of the
meaning of the term vernacular, then. The most basic refers to the fact
that a vernacular is an uncodified or unstandardized variety. The second
refers to the way it is acquired – in the home, as a first variety. The third
is the fact that it is used for relatively circumscribed functions. The first
component has been most widely used as the defining criterion, but
emphasis on one or other of the components has led to the use of the
term vernacular with somewhat different meanings (Holmes, 2013).
3.2 Standard Language

A standard variety is generally one which is written, and which has

undergone some degree of regulation or codification (in a grammar and a
dictionary); it is recognized as a prestigious variety or code by a
community, and it is used for H functions alongside a diversity of L
varieties.
In language standardization, the following steps should be followed:
• Selection – selecting the variety or code to be developed
• Codification – standardizing its structural or linguistic features
• Elaboration – extending its functions to be used in new domains
• Implementation –Securing its acceptance, i.e. acceptance by people in
terms of attitude and prestige.
3.3 World Englishes

The terms ‘World Englishes’ and ‘New Englishes’

have been used to emphasize the range of different
varieties of English that have developed since the
nineteenth century.
Kachru (1992:357), as cited from Dita (2020),
advocates the use of the plural form Englishesbecause
formally and functionally, English now has multicultural
identities. Also, the term “English” does not capture
this sociolinguistic reality; the term “Englishes” does.
 Expanding-
Circle English

The ‘Inner Circle’

•English as a Native
Outer-Circle
English Language (ENL)
•norm-providing

The ‘Outer Circle’

Inner-Circle
English
•English as a Second
Language (ESL)
•norm-developing

The ‘Expanding Circle’

•English as a Foreign
Language (EFL)
•norm-dependent

Figure 1. Three Concentric Circles Model (Kachru, 1985)

3.4 Lingua Franca

The term lingua franca describes a language

serving as a regular means of communication between
different linguistic groups in a multilingual speech
community. It is a language used for communication
between people whose first languages differ from each
other. In some countries, the most useful and widely
used lingua franca is an official language or the
national language.
 In multilingual communities, lingua francas are so useful
they may eventually displace the vernaculars. Maintaining
linguistic distinctiveness is important in this multilingual
community. If linguistic distinctiveness is an important
identifying value for a group, then ethnic languages and
vernaculars tend to survive, often for a considerable time. But
there are many factors which may contribute to their
replacement, and the usefulness of lingua francas in multilingual
areas is certainly one relevant factor. Lingua francas also often
develop initially as trade languages – illustrating again the
influence of economic factors on language change.

 On Lingua Franca
 There have been many successful attempts to
create a language for communication between people
who use different languages. From a linguistic and
sociolinguistic point of view, the most interesting lingua
francas in many respects are pidgin and creole
languages.

 On Lingua Franca
3.5 Pidgins and Creoles
A pidgin is a language which has no native speakers. Pidgins develop
as a means of communication between people who do not have a
common language. So a pidgin is no one’s native language. Pidgins seem
particularly likely to arise when two groups with different languages are
communicating in a situation where there is also a third dominant
language.
Pidgin languages are created from the combined efforts of people
who speak different languages. All languages involved may contribute to
the sounds, the vocabulary and the grammatical features, but to different
extents, and some additional features may emerge which are unique to
the new variety.
 A pidgin language has three identifying characteristics: 1) it is used in
restricted domains and functions; limit domain lang 2) it has a simplified
structure compared to the source languages; and 3) it generally has low
prestige and attracts negative attitudes – especially from outsiders.
Pidgins often have a short life. If they develop for a restricted function,
they disappear when the function disappears.

Creole, on the other hand, is a pidgin which has acquired native

speakers. Many of the languages which are called pidgins are in fact now
creole languages. They are learned by children as their first language and
used in a wide range of domains. Creoles also differ from pidgins in their
range of functions, structure and, in some cases, in the attitudes
expressed towards them. A creole is a pidgin which has expanded in
structure and vocabulary to express the range of meanings and serve the
range of functions required of a first language.
 On Pidgins and Creoles
 Pidgin becomes more structurally regular as it undergoes
creolization, the process by which a pidgin becomes a Creole.
When a Creole has developed, it then can be used in any
official government matters-politics, education,
administration, etc. Creole may be standardized and adopted
as an official language.

 On Pidgins and Creoles

Supplementary Learning Resources
Nas Daily on Youtube
• The Most Unique Language -
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8_vFa8AfzHg
• The Easiest Language - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a5iNq-ZqtYI
• Can You Speak this Language -
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BiKB0c60Z9w
• The Shortest Language - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AOjreE5AivA
• The Strongest Accent - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yrQp1LaQoiQ
• The Simplest Language -
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l5RUufmRsYc
• The Fruit Language - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C07QTOrgsvk
References
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Ghana. Legon Journal of the Humanities, 25. Retrieved from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/303364731_Language_Choice_in_Multilin
gual_Communities_The_Case_of_Larteh_Ghana
• Bravo-Sotelo, K. (2020). Exploring the Tagalog-English Code-Switching Types Used for
Mathematics Classroom Instruction. IAFOR Journal of Education: Language Learning
in Education, 8(1). Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1245827.pdf
• Brunet, S. (2014) Sociolinguistics Chapter 2: Language Choice in Multilingual
Communities [Powerpoint Slides]. Retrieved from
https://www.slideserve.com/soleil/sociolinguistics-chapter-2-language-choice-in-mul
tilingual-communities
• Coulmas, F. (Ed.). (1998). The Handbook of Sociolinguistics. Blackwell
Publishing.Blackwell Reference Online.
• Dita, S. (2020). The Legitimacy of Philippine English [Webinar; Powerpoint Slides]
References
• Esen, S. (2019) Code Switching: Definition, Types, and Examples.Owlcation. Retrieved
from
https://owlcation.com/humanities/Code-Switching-Definition-Types-and-Examples-of
-Code-Switching
• Holmes, J. (2013). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics (4thed.). New York, USA:
Routledge
• Lesada, J. (2017) TAGLISH IN METRO MANILA: AN ANALYSIS OF TAGALOG-
ENGLISH CODE-SWITCHING. Retrieved from
https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/139623/jlesada.pdf
• Rubrico, J. U. (2012). Sociolinguistics: Society and language. Retrieved from
http://www.languagelinks.org/teaching/lecturenotes/lecturenotes_SocialVariationsin
LanguageUse.pdf
• Schiffman, H. (1999). Ferguson’s original formulation. Retrieved from
https://www.sas.upenn.edu/~haroldfs/messeas/diglossia/node3.html
References
• Tjitrosoediro, S. (N.D.) Language Shift and Language Maintenance. Retrieved from
http://www.academia.edu/9137709/Language_Shift_and_Language_Maintenance?a
uto=download
• Valentino, Y. B., Sari M. E.,Nugraheni, R., Santika, S. P. N. (2013). Joshua Fishman’s
Domains of Language Use in relation to Multicultural Life. Retrieved from
https://www.academia.edu/4152760/JOSHUA_FISHMANS_DOMAINS_OF_LANGUAGE
_USE_IN_RELATION_TO_MULTICULTURAL_LIFE
• Wardhaugh, R. (Ed.). (2006). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics (5th ed.). Retrieved
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http://home.lu.lv/~pva/Sociolingvistika/1006648_82038_wardhaugh_r_an_introducti
on_to_sociolinguistics.pdf
Teaching and Learning Activities
Activity 1
Directions: (a) Fill in the column labeled “variety/code” for your speech community. If
your community is monolingual, remember that the term variety includes different
dialects and styles of language. (b) Ask a bilingual/multilingual friend or neighbor
which languages they would use in the different domains.

Domain Addressee Setting Topic Variety/Code (a) Variety/Code (b)

Family Parent Home Asking for a favor    

Planning for an
Friendship Friend Park    
outing

Choosing the Sunday

Religion Church Leader Church    
liturgy

Education Teacher School Discussing a topic    

Applying for a
Employment Employer Workplace    
promotion
Teaching and Learning Activities
Activity 2
Directions: Put a check mark in the appropriate column to identify in which disglossic
variety the domains belong.
Domains of Language Use H-variety L-variety

1. Friendly letter    

2. University lecture    

3. Folk literature    

4. News broadcast    

5. Poetry    

6. Conversation with friends    

7. Facebook posts    

8. Newspaper editorial    

9. Sermon in church    

10. Teleserye dialogues    

Teaching and Learning Activities

Activity 3
Directions: Interview two persons from your community, and write
their responses on the following questions. Write their
name/nickname, age, and occupation.
1. What is their mother tongue?
2. What languages do they speak at home?
3. Which of these languages do they use more often?
4. How do they maintain their mother language?
5. Do they also code switch? Cite three examples.