9.

Honeybee diseases, Pests and Abnormalities

9.1. Honey Bee Diseases
Honeybee diseases caused by:
Bacteria
 American foul brood (AFB)
 European foul brood (EFB)
 Septicemia
Fungi
 Chalk brood and stone brood
Protozoa
 Nosema and Amoeba
Virus
 Paralysis and sac brood
Parasitic mites
 Varroatosis, Acarin disease 1
9.1.1. Bacterial diseases
1. American Foulbrood (AFB)  
It is caused by bacterium Bacillus larvae. The disease affects only the immature
stages of the honeybee and can be highly contagious. If left untreated, AFB can
develop very rapidly within a colony, and can also be spread from colony to colony
within an apiary, and from apiary to apiary due to robbing and by interchanging
diseased equipment (e.g. frames). In addition, if diseased equipment is left outdoors,
it may become a source of infection for foraging bees to carry back to their hives.

2. European foul brood (EFB)

It is larval disease caused by streptococcus gram positive, it usually affects
uncapped, young larval of brood combs. The infection differentiated by its
symptom as dead flaked and decomposed larval with pungent smell is noticed.

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EFB is common to European and temperate areas, but very rare to African and
totally absent in Ethiopia. Food and equipment are common mode of transmission
of the disease to new areas. Fumigation by ethylene oxide is necessary to prevent
and control the disease.

Time of brood death is one of the main criterion used for distinguishing between
American foul brood and European foul brood.

AFB affects older larvae and pupae, thus death occurs after the cell is sealed. When
the brood dies, the cap on the cell sinks inward. EFB death of larvae occur before
the cell is sealed, thus the larvae can be seen and death of EFB are creamy-white to
brown in color and are twisted in the cell.
 
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3. Septicemia
This bacterial disease attack adult bees. The causative agent is pseudomonas
apiseptica gram negative bacteria. Causing a death to bees after 20 to 36 hours of
inoculation and adult bees have no resistance to septicemia.

Mode of invasion and spread through spiracles (tracheal holes).

The disease is found in all continents of the world, but very rare to Ethiopia. San
additional evidences from epidemiological investigation the reported investigation
results indicators that the spread and prevalence of the disease is rare, particularly
in the whole administrative region of Ethiopia and in neighboring countries as well.

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9.1.2. Viral diseases
Virus diseases:- a disease caused by a virus and viruses are not considered to be
independent living organisms, that can only replicate within a host cell. Infected
cells become damaged, die and disintegrated and hence releasing very many
infective virus particle with in host cell.

1. Bee paralysis
Bee paralysis is caused by a virus chronic paralysis virus (CPR), showing the
following symptom from the effect these viral infection:-

Abnormal trembling motion of wings and bodies of adult bees.

Fail to fly to foraging places, but crawling on the ground
Huddle together on the hive
Bottom abdomen is often seen distended
Dislocated wings are seen inside the hive.
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The outbreak of bee paralysis disease follows a pattern of erratic regardless
seasonal occurrence, so it is difficult to predicate time of disease outbreak. Mode of
transmission and spread of a disease subjected by infected bees and equipment,
therefore care must be taken when buying bee colony from elsewhere.

Symptom of the disease observed as the bee larval infects by bee paralysis the color
changes from white to pale yellow, while larvae death due to bee paralysis the color
appear to be brow crawling under the hive.

Not effective pharmacotherapy for bee paralysis, since virus are too small that
cannot be seen even with the aid of light microscope, the viruses may firmly
attached to the infected cell and they multiply with in host cell, that likely difficult
for the diseases treatment with chemicals and hard to kill the virus separately
without harming the cellular structure of bees in the course of chemical treatment,
so care must be taken for disease prevention strategy.
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2. Sac-brood
It is caused by a virus and sac brood infected larvae is usually found at around the
edges of the brood nest and the extents of its seriousness results when the brood
chilled during the winter season as there is not enough bees to completely cover the
brood area to maintain internal heat.

Sac-brood is more likely to be confused with foulbrood than is chalk brood. The
absence of any putrefied smell of the dead brood is the most distinguishing feature
of sac-brood. The dead larva remains intact, as the virus does not attack the skin.
This is different from foulbrood, when the dead of larvae brood by foulbrood
becomes a mass of decayed material.

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9.1.3. Fungal diseases
1. Chalk-brood
This disease is caused by Ascospharea apis that infect sealed larval. The disease seriously affects
drone larvae more than worker larvae. It is found only in Europe but not elsewhere in the world. No
known treatment for it so far.

2. Stone brood
The disease caused by Aspergillus flavors, when the spores ingestion with nectar/ pollen cause
an infection to the uncapped larval. Stone brood is not economical important disease affecting
a beekeepers. Symptom of infected larval shows a change of color from white to pale brownish
or grayish yellow and eventually death before reaching to pupal stage.

Mode of transmission and spread of Stone brood disease through beekeeping tools and
equipment. There is no means of treatment, but some suggested that fumigation with Sulphur is
being recommended from prevention point of view.
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9.1.4. Protozoal Disease
It is microscopic unicellular organism. Some are parasitic or symbiotic and many of these would infect
honeybees. Parasitic protozoa are spore forming parasitic protozoa are responsible for various protozoan
disease to bees.

1. Nosema disease
Nosema is known to a disease to the digestive organ of adult bee, as the spores germinating and entering to
the true stomach, ventriculus. It is the most wide spread adult bee disease known in temperate and sub-tropical
countries. All caste of bee colonies vulnerable to death by Nosema particularly in winter seasons. Nosema
disease found in Ethiopia considering the most economical disease affecting the Highland beekeepers.

Bees colony infected by Nosema disease show the following symptoms:-

 Dysentery
 Young nurse bees stop their activities, brood rearing, and care for the queen
 Queen stop laying, and die few weeks after
 Restlessness
 Crawling outside the hive
9
 
Mode of transimition and spread of the disease through wind, insect, water and
contaminated combs and beekeeping equipment.

Chemical fumigiline with fumidl or Oxytetracycline can destroy or arrest the

development of the disease causing organism at growth stage, but many suggestions
prevention is better than treatments, a good management practice is an appropriate
to control the outbreak of Nosema disease.

This includes keeping the colony strong by providing food during winter time, keep
good ventilation, protection from winds, avoid cool weather and keep colony
placement stands high from the wet ground.

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The following Preventions strategies are followed to control

All the frames of afflicted colonies should be replaced with clean frames. The
frames can be disinfected by placing them in a box with a saucer of glacial acetic
acid on top of them, or the combs can be melted down.
Replace the bottom board and clean it thoroughly.
Do not unite weak colonies (they may be diseased) with strong colonies.

Supply clean drinking water if this is not available near the bee colonies.
Strengthen colonies by feeding them with soya flour or skimmed milk
Chemotherapy with Fumigillian or Fumidil, Dosage: 100 g active component
applied with l sugar solution (sugar to water = 2: 1).
 
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2. Amoeba
The causative agent is called Malpighamoeba mellifera. Amoeba infects adult bees
by ingesting to their cysts. Following germination in the digestive tract, migrate to
Malpighian tubules invaded to make an infection. The symptom is more or less like
Nosemosis. However, some symptoms that are seen on infested bees are:-

Dysentery
Bloating of abdomen
Restlessness
Crawling around the hive
Population decrease
The spread of this disease is mainly by contaminated combs and equipment and
food and water. Up to now no chemical treatment was found to arrest and for
properly control.   12
9.1.5. Parasitic mite of honeybees:
There are a number of parasitic mites live and multiply internal or external of the
host. Some of them are host specific and specific only to certain parts of the body
which we call localized. Some of the economic important parasitic mites that cause
great damage to bee beekeeping are as follows:-

1. Acarine disease
This disease is caused by Acarapis woodi that affect adult bee colony. This mite
gets in the tracheal system of the honeybee through prothorax and then completed
its life cycle there. The tracheal system would block and devoid air circulation that
forced to die of suffocation.

symptom are unobservable from outside, so any suspected bees are diagnostics
made from dissected on the tracheal part of the prothorax, the tracheal system are
found dark and stained, these indicate that the mite has already completed 13its life
2. Varroa disease
Varroa destructor is an external parasitic mite that attacks the honey bees Apis cerana
and Apis mellifera. The infection and subsequent parasitic disease caused by varroa
(varroa Jacobson) mites is called varroosis. It is one the most dangerous diseases ever
exist in the world today.

Varroa destructor can only reproduce in a honey bee colony. It attaches to the body of the
bee and weakens the bee by sucking hemolymph. Varroa mites are visible to the naked
eye and look somewhat like a tick. They feed on the hemolymph of adult bees and the
developing brood.

A significant mite infestation will lead to the death of a honey bee colony, usually in the
late autumn through early spring. The Varroa mite is the parasite with the most
pronounced economic impact on the beekeeping industry. It may be a contributing factor
to colony collapse disorder, as research shows it is the main factor for collapsed colonies.
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Life cycle of varroa mite was thoroughly studied indicate that female mite would
enter into uncapped larval cells of worker and drones bees, soon the reproduction
cycle of the mite takes place inside the cells.

Female mites enter the brood cells of the worker or drone larvae just prior to the
cells being capped. Then she will deposit five to six eggs over a period of time
while feeding on the brood. The first egg laid will be develop into a male and
subsequent eggs will be fertilized and develop into females. The eggs hatch and the
young mites begin to feed on the developing pupa. The adult female mites along
with the original female mite(s) leave the cell when the bee emerges. The female
mites will enter another cell or attach themselves to an adult bee to feed.

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The mode of spread of Varroa mites being transported from colony to colony by
drifting or robbing bees and equipment. Introduction of breed queens from elsewhere
is unwise way of improving apiculture or promoting beekeeping, unless cheeked
through quarantine. The end result of unchecked mite populations is an eroding adult
bee population and eventual colony death.

Preventive measures and treatment

Chemical fumigations or Honeybee coated with oxalic acid to protect from mites,
formic acid and Miticides smoke are mostly used. Varroa mites can be treated with
commercially available miticides. Miticides must be applied carefully to minimize the
contamination of honey that might be consumed by humans. improper use of miticides
also slows the development of resistance by the mites.

Synthetic chemicals, such as chemotherapy preparation from powdered sugar with

drug can be sprinkled on the bees are usually called Sucrocide in spray application.
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9.2. Honeybee Colony Abnormalities
There are several colony abnormal that are not caused by disease organisms but by
environmental, management or biological factors. Honeybee Colony Abnormalities
are serious as a disease in their effect on colony health and honey production.
the beekeeper be familiar with abnormalities, in order to distinguish from a disease
that enable the right to right problem. The following are the major Honeybee
Colony Abnormalities:-
1.Chilled Brood
When a colony is rearing brood, the brood is kept warm by the adult bees on each
comb that maintain a brood nest temperature of about below 35oc. When a colony
has fewer adults needed to cover the comb of brood, chilling of the brood can result.
This condition is common during early spring, when the brood nest is rapidly
expanding and cold spells may cause the bees to contract, leaving peripheral brood
exposed. 17
Prolonged exposure to temperatures below 200c will cause death, with young brood
being more temperature sensitive than capped brood. Chilled Brood may also be
noticed in weak colonies, in splits and in colonies, which have lost many adult bees
as the result of insecticide poisoning or tracheal mites.

Maintenance of colonies with adequate adult numbers, the use of entrance reducers
in the spring and insulative hive wraps will help to prevent the occurrence of chilled
brood. Once the colony is stronger, the adult bees will remove dead brood from the
combs

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2. Gassed Brood
When colonies are killed off with hydrogen cyanide gas the uncapped brood will
die, either from the cyanide fumes or from subsequent chilling or starvation. This
dead brood is usually noticed when the beekeeper is sorting combs for brood
chambers. It becomes dark and flattened, and will often superficially resemble
larvae that have died from American foulbrood.

A small amount of gassed brood does not pose a problem to package bees, which
will clean out any dead larvae in the combs. Generally, however, the first brood
chamber should not contain combs that are full of dead brood, as this will delay egg
laying and colony build-up. Such combs can be placed in the second brood chamber
when the colony is stronger.

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3. Scattered or spotty Brood Pattern
A scattered or spotty brood pattern is often a sign of a failing queen. Instead of a
solid pattern of eggs, young larvae or capped brood, many cells are empty. Spotty
brood may also indicate the presence of a brood disease such as American
foulbrood, European foulbrood, sac brood or chalkbrood.

When a spotty brood pattern is observed, the beekeeper should examine the colony
to check for other disease symptoms or signs of supersedure. If supersedure cells
are found, the problem is likely due to a failing queen, so she had being destroyed.
The colony can then be requeened from a queen cells of 3-5 days larvae.  

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4. Drone-laying Queen
Normally a queen will only lay unfertilized eggs in drone cells. However, when she
used-up the sperm that have been stored in her spermatheca she will begin to
regularly lay unfertilized eggs, even in worker cells. Signs of a drone-laying queen
include a spotty brood pattern and the presence of protruding rounded cappings on
worker brood combs.

Both are evidence of unfertilized eggs laid in worker cells. If the colony is still
strong, the beekeeper may requeen it after removing the old queen, and any queen
cells. If the colony has dwindled in size, the bees may be united with another colony
after removing the old queen. Otherwise the bees may be shaken on the ground and
allowed to drift to other hives in the apiary after their queen has been removed.

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5. Multiple Eggs per Cell
A colony has been queenless for several weeks; workers will lay eggs in large
numbers. These eggs are not fertilized and will develop into drones.

Signs of laying workers include a spotty brood pattern, drone brood in worker cells
and multiple eggs per cell, with many lay on the sides rather than in the bottoms of
cells are abnormalities that is difficult to find a salutation, therefore a very close
experience should be developed by regular monitoring of the apiary population.

Requeening a colony that has laying workers is not usually successful. The bees
should be taken onto the ground in the apiary and their hive removed. The bees will
gradually drift to other colonies. The development of laying workers in a queen less
colony can be delayed by adding comb with unsealed brood that has been removed
from a healthy colony.  
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6. Queenlessness
Signs of a queenless colony include a lack of eggs, larvae or brood, and in most
cases the presence of emergency queen cells on comb faces. In addition, the colony
develop a peculiar loud buzzing sound, and the workers run on the combs, often
with their wings spread.

7. Dysentery
Honeybees normally defecate in flight. If they are confined over a long period,
such as a cold winter, or are feeding on poor quality food, the accumulation of
indigestible matter in the rectum may cause dysentery and defecation within the
hive. Dysentery can cause premature death of adult honeybees, leading to
weakening or death of colonies. Signs of a dysentery problem are fecal spotting of
top bars, combs and entrances, especially in the early spring.

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8. Pollen and Honey Shortages
Shortages of honey and pollen occur at any time during the year. beekeeper should
recognizes the symptoms of food shortage from other problems to make a right
correction without delay. Proper management can prevent a food shortage, pollen
and honey shortage will reduce brood rearing and may cause colony death.

Symptoms of honey starving colony include cessation of brood rearing, slow

moving adult bees, and dead bees found in cells. Colonies should at least four to six
frames of honey at all times during the beekeeping season. A starving colony fed
immediately with sugar syrup (2:1sugar: water ).

Pollen shortages occur at any time of the year, often shortages may occur when
colonies are subjected by bad weather. However, a longer dearth of pollen have
serious effects on the colony population, especially when brood rearing at its peak,
at this time, a cessation of the pollen flow will cause brood starvation.
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Signs of pollen starvation and Symptoms in the colony include:

 A floral dearth period

 Lack of incoming pollen and combs devoid of stored pollen
 The presence of eggs but no uncapped brood
 The presence of young larvae with no food provisions
 A complete lack of brood
 The presence of larvae and pupae on the bottom board and on the ground in front
of the hive
 The presence of pupae that have been partly cannibalized  

Pollen shortages may be corrected by feeding the colony with a high quality pollen
supplement, preferably before the onset of shortage that would affects the colony. The
beekeeper must become familiar with pollen and nectar plants and their blooming
sequence and duration, in order to know when to expect dearth periods and thus be
prepared for them. 25
9.3. Honeybee Pests and Predators
Pests are usually easier to deal with in beekeeping because they can be seen, their
effect is immediate, and the solution to the problem is more obvious to the
beekeeper.
 
1. Wax moths
Wax moths are by far the biggest pests of honeybee colonies. Larvae of several
moth species infest beekeeping equipment, causing serious economic damage
through their feeding activities. Infestations in strong, active colonies are effectively
controlled by worker bees; however, extensive losses can occur in queen less
colonies or in those weakened through contact with pesticides, disease or parasites.
Stored equipment containing comb and debris is particularly vulnerable to invasion
by wax moths.

 
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Life cycle
A mated male moth can lay several hundred eggs in cracks between frames, lids and
boxes. Up on hatching, larvae move toward the comb midrib, forming feeding
tunnels lined with layers of silk material. The thick silk webbing that result from
developing infestations makes effective removal of the larvae by worker bees
difficult.

Mature larvae spin tough white cocoons between the supers or underneath the hive
lid. Equipment previously infested with wax moths contains characteristic gouges
where cocoons were attached to wood surfaces after a period of pupation; adult
moths emerge and mate, continuing the infestation cycle.
 

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Control
General recommendations is to alleviate infestations include the separation of light
and dark brood comb seem to be contaminated prior to storage and ensuring that
comb is not stored for more than a season without being placed on an active colony
of honeybees. Control methods include exposure of equipment to temperature
extremes, fumigation and biological control. Cold treatment of comb and
beekeeping equipment is relatively effective in eliminating all life stages of wax
moths. Procedures to prevent substantial losses from wax moths include:

Maintaining vigorous colonies with adequate food stores

Controlling diseases and other pests
Annually removing wax and debris from the bottom board of the hive
Avoiding exposure to pesticides.

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2. Ants and termites
Ants are common pests of bee colonies in many parts of the tropics. They can
continually attack a colony for several nights until they weaken it sufficiently to
gain entrance and destroy it. Ants are usually more interested in the brood than in
the honey. Colonies that are under attack by ants at night are agitated and very
defensive during the day. Ants are attracted to hives by the presence of honey and
pollen, and may attempt to nest in warm, dry areas inside or beneath the hives.
Symptoms
The presence of ants and termites in and around the hive.
Extremely restless bees and a buzzing sound near the flight entrance.
Dead and half eaten bees around the hives.
The hive has been abandoned by the bees.
 

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Prevention and control
Apiaries should be maintained to prevent the accumulations of grass, brush and rotting
wood, all of which are common nesting sites for ants. Provide a good barrier between
the ground and the hives. You can do this by placing the legs of the stands in basins
with a cover to protect them from the sun and to prevent bees from falling into them.

You can also apply a layer of grease to the legs of the bee stands which are protected
by a cap of plastic, zinc or aluminum. Make sure that no weeds grow below the hives,
allowing the ants to climb up to the hives. Suspend the hives with wire; make the bee
hives and stands of fairly hard wood known to be resistant to termites and treat the
wood with creosote.
 
If ants become a problem in the apiary, their nests may be treated with a 1% solution
of Diazion with 12.5% emulsifiable concentrate at a rate of 100ml/ litter. Spray the
solution directly onto the nesting ground, ensuring that both the nest and the
surrounding ground are thoroughly soaked. 30
3. Rodents
Mice are the most serious pests of honeybee colonies. They feed on pollen, honey
and dead bees, and may destroy large numbers of frames and combs while building
their nests. A strong colony which has sufficient bees to cover all of the combs in
the hive will not allow mice to build nests.

4. Toads
Toads are also a problem for colonies in areas of the tropics. They can eat large
numbers of bees from the entrance of the colony at night or capture bees as they
leave the hive early in the morning. If toads have eaten a bee from the colony, the
faces of toad which contain bees will be seen around the front of the hive. In areas
where ants and toads are a problem, it is necessary to have the hives on hive stands
to prevent losses. Hive stands make working the hives easier and can also lessen
termite damage to wooden hives. Using termite resistant posts to make the stands
can prevent termites from gaining access to the hives.
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Insect-eating mammals such as the honey badger of Africa and Asia can destroy
hives for the brood. Birds and lizards sometimes cause problems in the apiary by
eating large numbers of bees.

The only solution is to kill the animals involved, though this is a temporary
solution. Where this is a problem, the animals can be killed or a fence built around
the apiary. Beetles are sometimes found in the colony in the tropics and sub tropics.
These hive beetles feed on the stored pollen. Generally, the only damage is in weak
colonies where the beetle larvae are allowed to burrow through the comb.

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5. Cattle and game
Symptoms:
Knocked-over hives, brood that has been pulled out of the frames, hoof or paw-prints.

Description:
Bears, cows, etc. can cause considerable damage and also suffer considerable damage
themselves when they come too close to or get into the hives.

Prevention:
If you experience disturbances of this kind, fence in the apiary with a fence of poles,
wire or bamboo or a hedge.
 
 
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7. Robbing
Symptoms:
 Flights between bees at the flight entrance.
 Dead bees under the hive.
 The colonies are restless and irritable.

Description:
In dearth periods when the bees detect honey or sugar solution in the hives of other colonies, they
attempt to remove these by robbing. Strong colonies can defend themselves against this, but weak
colonies will not be able to do so and are either killed in their attempt to defend the hive or
abscond after a while.

Prevention:
 Never spill honey or sugar solution outside the hives.
 Feeding always be done in the hive, so that bees only have access to the sugar from
inside the hive. It is best to give the sugar solution in the evening.
 In weak colonies always make the flight entrance small (5 cm).
 Ensure that the hives are well closed and have only one flight entrance. 34
9.4. Insecticides and Pesticides
Insecticides mainly used for crop protection, the extent to which this problem
affects beekeepers varies considerably. Insecticide poisoning mostly affects the
foragers, are killed in the field or soon returning to the colony. Large numbers of
dead bees around colonies are a reason to suspect poisoning by insecticides.

The problem of insecticide poisoning can be reduced as follows:-

 Educating both the beekeeper and the insecticide user.
 Hives can be moved from an area if insecticides are going to be used.
 Adjustment the method and timing of application
 Proper application prevents drifting of the chemical away from crop onto bee
colonies or other bee forage.
 Applying the insecticide when bees are not active on the crop can also reduce
bee losses. This can be when the crop is not in bloom or during a time of the
day when bee activity on the crop is low.
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The following are lists of common insecticides, which are hazardous to bees:

Hazardous to bees:
Azinphosmethyl Benzene hexachloride
Carbaryl Carbofuran
Chlorpyriphos Crotonamide
Diazion Fenthion
Heptachlor Lindane
Malathion Methyl parathion
Methomyl Monocrotophos
Chlorodane Demeton  

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