Towards the creation of Pakistan: Key

events and their impact

Timeline of Events
 1857: War of independence.
 1906: Formation of All India Muslim League.
 1916: Lucknow pact.
 1919: Montague-Chelmsford reforms.
 1919: Khilafat movement.
 1922: Hindu-Muslim riots.
 1927: Delhi proposal.
 1928: Nehru report.
 1929: Jinnah`s 14 points.
 1930: Simon commission report.
 1930: Allama Iqbal`s Allahabad address.
 1930-32: Round table conferences.
 1932: Communal award.
 1935: Government of India act.
 1937: Elections.
 1937-39: Congress Rule.
 1938: Pirpur report.
 1940: Pakistan resolution.
 1942: Cripp`s mission.
 1944: Gandhi-Jinnah talks.
 1945: Simla conference.
 1946: Cabinet mission.
 1946: Direct action day.
 1946: Interim government.
 1946: 3rd June plan.
 1947: Formation of Pakistan.
War of Independence(1857)
 War of Independence is an important landmark in the history of Sub-Continent.
 This War was fought in 1857 by Indians against the British in order to get rid of their
domination. It is also given names as Indian Rebellion, Indian Mutiny as well as Indian
Revolt.
 The main causes of the War were political, social, economical, military and religious.
 It was an extreme effort made by Indians, but they failed due to certain reasons including
mutual jealousies, disunity, and lack of central leadership etc.
 This war was not spread throughout India but it was limited to few areas mainly Meerut,
Delhi, Kanpur, Lucknow etc.
 The main event which became the immediate cause of the war was the refusal of the Sepoys to
use the grease covered cartridges (greased with fat of pig and cow) on January 23, 1857.
 At the same time, an Indian sepoy killed two British officers at Barrackpore, when he was
forced to use greased cartridges.
 He was arrested and hanged to death on April 8, 1857. This news spread as fast as jungle fire.
Jawaharlal Nehru in his book
“Discovery of India” described it as the
Feudal Revolt of 1857 and added that “it
was much more than a military mutiny and
it rapidly spread and assumed the
character of a popular rebellion and a war
of Indian Independence”.
Meerut
On 6th May, 1857 A.D. 85 out of 90 Indian soldiers at Meerut refused to bite the greased cartridges with their
teeth. These 85 soldiers were court-martialled and imprisoned for 10 years. They were stripped off their
uniforms in the presence of the entire Indian crowd .
It was too much of a disgrace and this incident sent a wave of indignation. On 10th May 1857, the Indian
soldiers at Meerut broke into open revolt. They released their companions and murdered a few
European officers. On the night of 10th May the mutineers marched to Delhi and reached there on 11th
May.

Delhi
The revolutionaries reached from Meerut to Delhi on 11th May, 1857 and the small British garrison at Delhi was not able to resist
and consequently fell into their hands within 2 days. The Mughal Emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar, was proclaimed Emperor of India.
In order to regain Delhi, Sir John Lawrence sent a strong British force commanded by John Nicholson.
After a long siege of four months, the British recovered Delhi in September 1857 A.D. The Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar was
captured, his two sons and a grandson were shot dead before his eyes and he was sent to Rangoon where he died in the year 1862 A.
D.
Kanpur

At Kanpur the struggle for Independence was led by Nana Sahib Dondu Pant (The adopted son of Peshwa
Baji Rao II). A number of British fell into his hands and he showed great kindness to them. But when he
heard about inhuman attitude of Gen. O’Neil towards Indians, he became very furious and killed all the
British.
General Havelock captured Kanpur after defeating Nana Sahib in a hotly contested battle on June 17,
1857. Later on Nana Sahib, with the help of Tantya Topi, recaptured Kanpur in November, 1857 but not
for a long time and British defeated them once again in a fierce war from December 1 to 6, 1857. Nana
Sahib fled towards Nepal, where he probably died, while Tantya Tope migrated to Kalpi.

Lucknow
The struggle for independence at Lucknow was led by Nawab, Wajid Ali Shah. The Chief Commissioner,
Sir Henry Lawrence, sought refuge with 1000 English and 700 Indian soldiers inside the Residency.
The Indians did not make any concession and killed most of the Englishmen, including Sir Henry
Lawrence and the notorious English General O’Neil. At last, the Commander-in-Chief General Collin
Campbell, marched towards Lucknow and captured it after a fierce battle in March 1858.
Jhansi and Gwalior

The leader of the revolutionaries in Central India was Rani Laxmi Bai of Jhansi. General Sir Huge Rose
attacked Jhansi in March 1858 but the brave Rani Laxmi Bai kept the British General unnerved for quite some
time.
She with the help of Tantya Tope created problems for the British troops. Both fought many successful battles
against the British.
A fierce battle was fought between the British and the revolutionaries under Rani Laxmi Bai and Tantya Tope
from June 11 to June 1 8, 1 858 A. D.
But the personal velour of Rani and Tantya Tope could not match the resources at the command of the British.
Tantya Tope was betrayed by the Gwalior Chief Man Singh and fell into the hands of the British. He was
subsequently hanged on April 18, 1859.
Bihar
In Bihar, the Revolt was led by Kunwar Singh, a zamindar of Jagdishpur.
Though he was eighty years old, he played a prominent part in the revolt. He fought the British in Bihar and
then joined Nana Sahib’s forces and took part in various encounters with the English in Oudh and Central
India.
He died on April 27, 1858, leaving behind a glorious record of valour and bravery.
Causes of the Revolt: Economic cause:

 The first two hundred years (sixteenth and seventeenth centuries) the East
India Company confined its activities to trade and commerce and had no
political intention.
 The production of the Indian goods became so popular that the British
government had to pass a law in 1720 forbidding the use of Indian textiles.
 During the 18th century, the pattern of trade went through a drastic change.
 With the advent of the Industrial Revolution, England developed its own
textile industry and with that the dependence on Indian textiles came to an
end.
 Demand for Indian textiles having reduced, the local hand-loom industry
faced heavy losses and suffered badly.
 Gradually, the Indian handicraft and Cottage industries died out.
 There was major unemployment problem and that resulted in
resentment among workers against the British rule.
 The little patronage that they received from the native princes
also was gone because of the annexations of those dominions.
 The miserable condition of the working class led to this rebellion
against the British Rule.
 The trade and commerce of the country was monopolized by the
by the East Indian Company.
 No efforts were made to improvise on the living conditions of the
people.
Social and religious cause
 Indians had a suspicion that they would be converted to Christianity under
the new regime.
 The fear was largely due to the activities of some of the activities of some
Christian missionaries.
 The English also established Chapels and Churches for propagating
Christianity at the expense of the government. Even civil and military officers
were asked to propagate the gospel.
 The religious sentiments of the people were further hurt when a tax was
imposed on the construction of temples and mosques.
 An ACT was also passed in 1856 known as the “General Services Enlistment
Act”, which imposed on the Indian sepoys the obligation to serve wherever
required.
 This forced Hindus for overseas travelling which was against their religious
 The introduction of western innovations had unsettled the minds of the ignorant people.
 The spread of English education, the construction of railways and telegraph lines,
legislation for the suppression of sati and the remarriage of the widows stimulated
Indians belief that the British were determined to convert the people to Christianity.
 The introduction of railways was resented on the ground that people of all castes would
have to travel in the same compartments.
 The common people did not appreciate these changes. They looked upon them as foreign
innovations designed to break down the social order to which they were accustomed and
which they considered sacred.
 The educated Indians were also denied high posts.
 The highest office open to an Indian in Civil Services was that of a sadar or an Amin with
an annual salary of Rs. 500 only.
 In the military service the highest office that an Indian could secure is that of a Subedar.
 Humiliation and torture were inflicted upon Indians in their own country. This racial
discrimination hurt Indian sentiments tremendously.
 Political Causes
 Lord Dalhousie’s policy of annexation caused uproar among the people of India.
 The last Peshwa, Baji Rao’s adopted son Nana Sahib was deprived of the pension his father was
receiving. Rani Laxmi Bai’s adopted son was not given the throne after the death of his father.
 The annexation of Oudh without a reason led to a huge uprising. The annexation of Jhansi, Satara and
Nagpur shocked the Hindus as they were predominantly Hindu states.
 The remaining Hindus and Muslims who were unaffected became insecure, lest they meet the same fate.
 To make matters worse Lord Dalhousie announced in 1849 that Bahadur Shah Zafar will not be allowed
to stay in the Red Fort anymore and they were compelled to move to a place near Qutab Minar.
 To further worsen the situation Lord Canning announced in 1856 that with the demise of Bahadur Shah
Zafar, his successor will not be allowed to use the title “king”.
 The myth about the superiority of the British was shattered when they were badly beaten in the first
Afghan War.
 Besides that there was a rumor floated around that with the end of the Revolt of 1857 the British Raj
would come to an end.
 This rumour created from the fact that the battle of Plassey in 1757 brought about British power and with
1857 a century would be completed which will mark the end of British rule.
 Military Causes
 The East India Company was formed with the help of Indian soldiers. Instead of giving them due
credit, the Indian soldiers were made victims of suppression.
 Disregarding the fact that the Indian soldiers were efficient, the British officials paid them poor. Indian
soldiers who had formerly held high offices in the times of the native princes found themselves in low
ranks. All the higher ranks were reserved for white men irrespective of their capacity to perform.
 The futures of the soldier were doomed and bleak. There was no hope of receiving any allowance also.
 The Bengal army lacked discipline.
 The sepoys were unhappy as they were for the most of the times sent overseas to fight, which was not
desirable at all. There was no retirement age.
 The bitter feeling and anger reached its highest point with the emergence of the Enfield Rifles. The
cartridges of these rifles were greased with cow and pig fats. The sepoys had  to  remove the cartridge
with their teeth before loading them into the rifles. Both the Hindus and Muslims were discontented.
 Hindus consider cow sacred and Muslims considered pigs as impure. Thus, both refused to use this
cartridge and they were disharmony everywhere.
 Cruel exploitation of the economic resources made people
miserable leading to periodic famines.
 The British confiscated the lands and properties of many
landlords. These landlords became leaders of the Revolt.
 Thousands of soldiers under the employment of the native
states became jobless when the states were annexed to the
British dominion.
 As many as 60,000 families lost their livelihood, when Oudh’s
army was disbanded.
 Naturally the disbanded soldiers were seething with anger and
were seeking an opportunity to strike at the new regime which
had deprived them of their livelihood.
 Reasons for the Failure
 Lack of unity amongst Indians was one of the important reasons for the failure of WOI.
 The war spread over a few places. Starting from Meerut it spread to Delhi, Lucknow,
 Allahabad, Kanpur, Gwalior and Jhansi. Each area had its own leader.
 In Delhi the Mughal emperor bahadur shah II was made the commander. Hazrat mahal led
the rebel forces in lucknow.
 Nana sahib and Tatia Topi rose up in Kanpur.
 Rani lakshmibai fought in Gwalior and Jhansi but there was no link and coordination
between them.
 The reason for lack of unity was that there was no common cause and no common
planning.
 Muslims wanted to bring back Muslim rule, while Hindus wanted that the power should be
in hands of Hindu rulers such as Marathas.
 Another aspect of lack of unity was that there was no common leader and concept of
nationalism was absent among Indian people.
 Most of the local fighters were interested in their personal security and wellbeing.
 Many Indian states rulers sided and helped the British.
 Rulers of Gwalior, Kashmir, Hyderabad and Nepal were loyal and offered help to British.
 The Sikh from Punjab assisted the British to regain Delhi and the ruler of Kashmir sent
2000 troops to support the British.
 The leaders of Indian forces did not come to support one another.
 There was also no planning, no arrangement for training of soldiers and no supply of
weapons and funds on a regular basis which was essential to conduct a successful war.
 Therefore the local forces were too weak to face the British.
 But besides all that the main reason for the failure of the WOI was that the British were too
strong and had superiority in weapon and fighting methods.
 The British army was disciplined and trained. There was regular supply of weapons and
 Conclusion
Most of the European historians have pointed out that it was a revolt of Indian
soldiers who were offended at the use of greased cartridges.
 In their opinion, the discontented sepoys were incited by the landlords and the
deposed native princes and the people of India were not directly involved in this
rebellion.
 They further assert that it was not a national war of independence, in as much as the
revolt was confined to a particular region and not to the whole of India; large areas like
the Punjab, Sind and Rajputana remained unaffected.
 It was admittedly a great and courageous effort by patriotic Indians to get rid of the
foreign domination. It was a glorious landmark in our history in as much as Hindus
and Muslims fought shoulder to shoulder to win back their lost independence.
 One cannot but admire the patriotic spirit of
boatmen of Lucknow who refused to carry British
soldiers across the river. The sepoys and the people
fought gallantly up to the very end.
 Though the revolt was unsuccessful, the spirit of the
people remained unshaken. The revolt left an
impression on the minds of the Indian people
and thus paved the way for the rise of a
strong national movement
Partition of Bengal
(1905-1911)
 
 The partition of Bengal was the most important event during the
rule of Lord Curzon. It was carried out mainly for the
convenience of administration.
 Bengal in those days was the biggest province of India extending
over 1, 89, 000 square miles with a population of 80 million.
 It was comprising of Bengal, Behar and Orissa and was under the
central of one lieutenant Governor.
 After Lord Curzon took charge as Governor General of India the
discussion over the Partition began due to the following issues:
1. Vastness of Province: The Province was spread over the area of 1, 89, 000 square miles
with the population of 80 million, which was too vast to be managed by one lieutenant Governor.
He could not make a tour for the whole province due to its vastness once in his tenure.
 
2. Limited Sources of Communication: The sources of communication in the provinces
were limited due to rivers and forests. The law and order condition of the provinces was also
worst due to insufficient police and in-efficient management. Therefore the need of partition of
province was felt severally.
 
3. Difference of Language: There was also the difference of Languages and civilization of the
natives of West Bengal and East Bengal. The natives of West Bengal considered themselves
superior in civilization to the resident of East Bengal. The Condition demanded for the division of
Provinces.
 
4. Need of the time: The division of Bengal was the need of the time to develop trade in East
Bengal and to promote the Port of Chittagong, which could be done only by division of the
Provinces.
 Partition: 
 The Partition of Bengal was thus calculated to restore efficiency in the
Government and administration on one hand and encouraged local initiatives for
progress and development on the other.
 Lord Curzon partitioned Bengal and formed two new provinces of manageable
size – East and West Bengal.
 East Bengal consisted of Dacca, Mamansingh, Assam, Kaula, Rangpur, and Bogra
district, the Dacca was capital of East Bengal constituted a majority
MuslimProvince,
 while the Bihar and Orissa constituted a separate province to be called as West
Bengal with the capital of Calcutta and become the Hindu Majority provinces.
 East Bengal contained a population of eighteen million Muslims and twelve
million Hindus.
 Whereas West Bengal had a population fifty four million of which 42 million
where Hindus and thus was the Hindu majority province.
Muslims’ Response
It received a favorable response from the Muslims. It was thought that it would bring the
emancipation of Muslims socially and economically. The Muslims welcomed the
Partition of Bengal for the following reasons:
 In the majority province of East Bengal the Muslims would be free from Hindu
dominance in economic field. They would get opportunities of services and
advancement of agriculture.
 The city of Dacca, where the Muslims were in majority was the centre of Muslim
culture. In Dacca Muslims had a great chance of success for social and cultural
advancement than in Calcutta.
 The Partition could result in political uplift and securing represent action in the
Government. 
 The partition of Bengal relieved the Muslims from competing with Hindus, who were
more advanced in every field of life.
Hindus Response
 
 The Hindus did not accept it, as it dealt a telling blow to their monopolies and exclusive
hold on economic, social, Political life of the whole of Bengal. They called it as a deliberate
attempt by British Government
  The Partition of Bengal had brightened the possibility of betterment of Muslims; while the
Hindu landlords, capitalists and traders wanted status quo and to continue the exploitation
of the Muslims.
 Hindu lawyers also reacted to the partition of Bengal because they thought that the new
province would have its separate courts and thus their practice would be affected.
 Hindu press was not different from that of Hindu advocates. Hindus had their monopoly
over almost whole of the province press. They were afraid that new newspapers would be
established which would decrease their income naturally.
 The Hindus launched Swadeshi Movement whose sole purpose was to boycott of British
goods.
Annulment of the Partition
 When Lord Hardinage assumed charge as Governor General of India Hindus again
became active and sent a representation to him for the annulment of partition of
Bengal.
 He recommended the same to the British Prime Minister for Indian Affairs.
 On the occasion of the visiting His Majesty George V to Indo-Pakistan and holding of
Darbar at Delhi on 12th December 1911 the partition of Bengal was cancelled.
 The united Bengal was placed under a Governor and Assam was placed under a Chief
Commissioner. This decision was shattering blow to Muslims.
 It left them sullen and disillusioned.
 Their anger and indignation had widespread repercussions.
 The Muslims leaders and intelligentsia condemned the decision as betrayal of worst
kind.
Conclusion

 
 The Muslims of India had appreciated the step and started
turning in the favour of the British but the British soon gave in
against the mounting pressure of Hindus which helped the
Muslims to realize the importance of standing on their feet
and to organize themselves politically.
 It also affirmed the apprehension of Sir Syed that the Muslims
might submerge in the majority of Hindus and lose their se
 
All India Muslim
League
 Factors behind the creation of AIMl
 Death of Sir Syed
 Rise of Hindu nationalism
 Election of 1892
 Resurgence of Urdu/Hindi controversy
 The partition of Bengal dilemma
 Muslim press: an active role
 Change of government in England
 Simla deputation
Other factors

K.k Aziz in making of Pakistan

1. Sir Syed's Two nation idea
2. Hinduism of Congress
3. Representativeness of Muslims
4. Political Awakening
 Mati ur rehman’s views

1. It was neither mushroom growth nor it was

a creation of any individual or entity, it was
a product of two forces
2. Hindu and Muslim's educational institutes
role
Establishment of All India Muslim League:
 After Simla deputation Mohsin-ul-Mulk, Agha Khan, Navwab Salim Ullah Khan showed
intentions of making a political party for Muslims' interests.
 For instance, Syed Ameer Ali stressed the need for the establishment of a separate political
party.
 Nawab Salim ullah Khan proposed that the name of political party should be, 'All India
Muslim Confederacy'.
 This must be deliberated after the session of All India Muhammadan Educational
Conference in December in Dhaka. This demand of Nawab Saleem was opposed by Hindu
newspaper. 'Bengali, which wrote that All India Muslim League reminds us of‘ Khalsa
Confederacy.
 On 30th December, 1906, All India Muhammadan Educational Conference session was
held and after the session a separate meeting Was held by the delegates.
 Some 3000 Muslim delegates met under the presidentship of Nawab Waqar- ul-Mulk and
decided to establish All India Muslim League.
 The resolution for the establishment of AIML was moved by Nawab Saleem Ullah Khan,
 Objectives of All India Muslim League:

AIML stated three objectives which are as follows:

 To foster a sense of loyalty toward British government
among the Muslims.
 To look after the political interests of Muslims.
 To bring about a better understanding between Muslims
and other communities.

 The membership of League was limited to just 400 members. A central committee
was established, which was later remained council of AIML. Its executive body
comprised 1 president, 6 vice-presidents, 1 secretary and 2 joint secretaries. The
central committee (council) was to elect president for each annual session.
 Between the period 1908-1919 there were two permanent presidents i.e. Sir Agha
Khan (1908-1912) and Raja Sahib of Mehmoodabad.
 After 1934, AIML elected its president annually. In between the period 1908-1933,
7 secretaries served AIML. From 1936, Nawabzada Liaqat Ali khan became the
secretary and held this office till 1947. In April 1907, Pune Muslim League was
established by Maulvi Rafi-ud-Din.
 In December 1, 1907, Punjab Muslim League was established.
 In November 1908, Madras (now Chennai) Muslim League was established.
 In 1909, AIML was organised at district level in Deccan. In 1909 Bombay
Presidency Muslim League was established.
 In October, 1909 East Bengal Muslim League was established.
 Change of creed:
 On 22nd March, 1913 Jinnah proposed to change the creed of Muslim League.
Now, a fourth objective was added to its already three existing objectives and that
was, "To attain suitable self-government for India under the aegis of
British"
 Factors responsible for change in the creed of AIML:
 Disillusioninent with British:
1. Anti-Muslim policies of British: Muslims grew increasingly disillusioned towards
the British . Now, the British began supporting anti-Muslim forces against the
Turkey (Ottoman Empire), Kanpur Mosque Tragedy, delay in elevating the status
of Aligarh College to university by the government also created a rift between the
Muslims and British.
2. Annulment of the partition of Bengal:
 British annulled or revoked the partition of Bengal in
12th December, 1911 on the demands of Hindus.
3. Invasion of Turkey by Balkan states (1911-
1912):
 In Turk-Balkan War, British openly sided witlh anti-
Turk forces which Infuriated the Muslims. Muslims
sent 23 members medical delegation to Turkey under
Dr. Ansari, It comprised 4 doctors and 6 dispensers.
19 out ol 23 members went to Turkey on their own
expenditure.
Radical changes inside AIML:
 The central office of AIML was shifted from Aligarh to Lucknow.
 Lucknow was a place more congenial for political activities other changes were:
1. Reduction of age limit from 25 down to 21 years
2. Reduction in membership fee from Rs.25 down to Rs.20 which could be paid in instalments.
3. Emergence of new cadre of leadership which was known as 'Young Group' and Aziz Mirza
was appointed as news secretary. These young people were more nationalists
4. In 1912, Ameer Ali resignedna Agha Khan resigned as permanent president of AIML,
Mohsin-ul-Mulk died in 1907. This changed the lobby of old guards and replaced it by new
nationalist cadre which could cooperate with Hindus.
5. Role of Jinnah:
Jinnah insisted that AIML political objectives should be highlighted and
AIML should change its creed. Its objectives became identical with those of Indian National
Congress. Now Jinnah joined the League.
Lucknow Pact
 The Congress and Muslim League held their sessions at the end of 1916 at
Lucknow, signed a pact known as the Lucknow Pact, and put forward common
political demands before the Government including the demand for self-
government for India after the war.
 An important role in this being played by Lokmanya Tilak and M.A. Jinnah.
 Muhammad Ali Jinnah, then a member of the Congress as well as the League,
made both the parties reach an agreement to pressure the British government
to adopt a more liberal approach to India and give Indians more authority to
run their country, besides safeguarding basic Muslim demands.
 After the unpopular partition of Bengal, Jinnah approached the League to
make it more popular among the M…
 Background to Lucknow Pact

 When the Muslim League was formed in 1906, it was a relatively moderate
organisation with a pro-British stance.
 After the First World War, the Viceroy Lord Chelmsford had solicited
reform suggestions from Indians in return for the Indian support to the
British war effort.
 The Muslim League led by Mohammed Ali Jinnah wanted to use this
opportunity to press for constitutional reforms through a joint Hindu-
Muslim platform.
 Jinnah was then a member of both the parties and he was largely
responsible for the Pact.
 This was the first time that leaders of both the INC and the Muslim League were
meeting for a joint session.
 At the meeting, the leaders consulted with each other and drafted a set of demands
for constitutional reforms.
 In October 1916, 19 elected Indian members of the Imperial Legislative Council
addressed a memorandum to the Viceroy seeking reforms.
 In November 1916, leaders from both the parties met again in Calcutta and
discussed and amended the suggestions.
 Finally, at their respective annual sessions held at Lucknow in December 1916, the
INC and the League confirmed the agreement. This came to be known as the
Lucknow Pact.
 For his efforts, Sarojini Naidu gave Jinnah the title ‘the Ambassador of Hindu-
Muslim unity.
Reforms suggested in the Lucknow Pact

 Self-government in India.
 Abolition of the Indian Council.
 Separation of the executive from the judiciary.
 Salaries of the Secretary of State for Indian Affairs to be paid
from British coffers and not the Indian funds.
 1/3rd representation to be given to Muslims in the Central
Government.
 The number of Muslims in the provincial legislatures to be laid
down for each province.
 Separate electorates for all communities until a joint electorate is
demanded by all.
 Introduction of a system of weightage for minority representation
(it implied giving minorities more representation than their share
in the population).
 Increasing the term of the Legislative Council to 5 years.
 Half the members of the Imperial Legislative Council to be Indians.
 All elected members to be elected directly on the basis of adult
franchise. 4/5th of the members of the provincial legislatures to be
elected and 1/5th to be nominated.
 Members of the Legislative Council to elect their President
themselves.
Results of Lucknow Pact
 The Lucknow Pact gave the impression of Hindu-Muslim unity
in the national political scene. But it was only an impression
and short-lived.
 The agreement between the parties on a separate communal
electorate formally established communal politics in India.
 Through this pact, the INC also tacitly accepted that India
consisted of two different communities with different interests.
 This pact pushed the hitherto less relevant Muslim League into
the forefront of Indian politics along with the Congress Party
 KHILAFAT MOVEMENT
 The Muslim League met in Calcutta under Jinnah.
At this meeting Jinnah said:

“First came the Rowlatt Bill — accompanied by the

Punjab atrocities — and then came the spoliation
of the Ottoman Empire and the Khilafat. One
attacks our liberty and the other our faith”
BACKGROUND
 The government of India Act of 1919 fell short of the expectations of the Indian political
parties.
 It introduced diarchy in the provinces, which meant subjects were to be divided into
reserved and transferred.
 The reserved were to be administered by nominated Ministers and then transferred by the
elected ones. While at the center, the British Governor General remained sole authority.
 The people could not accept this after the imposition of unsatisfactory Rowlatt Act and the
atrocities inflicted on the people of Punjab.
 The Muslims were also perturbed over the unfair treatment given to Turkey by the
victorious allied powers.
 During the war, the Muslims had shown concern about the developments in Turkey and
the institution of the Khilafat.
 Lloyd George,the British Prime Minister to pacify the Muslims all over the world,
had assured the world that the Allies had no intention to dismember Turkey and
after the war Turkish possessions would be made over to Turkey.
 He said, “nor are we fighting to deprive Turkey of the rich lands of Asia Minor and
Thrace, which are predominantly Turkish in race.”
 But the promise was not honored. The Jazirat-ul-Arab which includes
Mesopotamia, Arabia, Syria and Palestine was being divided among allies in the
form of a Mandate.
 This development raised a war of indignation among the Indian Muslims due to
sanctity and respect associated with these lands.
 They demanded that the pledges given to them during the war should be honored.
 This demand gave rise to what is generally known as the Khilafat Movement.
 This cause was initially taken up by Jamiat-i-Ulema-i-Hind founded by Maulana
Mohammad Ahmed Malani.
 In November 1919, a joint conference of the Muslims and Hindus was called at Delhi in pursuance of the
Muslim League President Fazl-ul-Haq in which he said, “ we should renounce any lurking spirit of strife
and quarrel with other communities and seek their help and assistance in our troubles and difficulties.
 The question of cow protection was also raised in order to create goodwill between the Muslims and the
Hindus.
 Ghandi suggested to start the non –cooperation movement which was opposed by Jinnah.

 In December 1919, the Khilafat Conference held its second session in Amritsar where the Muslim League
and the Congress also held their annual sessions.
 But the tensions raised could not be settled and Jinnah could no longer play a leading role in the Khilafat
movement and it passed into the hands of Ali brothers, Dr. Kitchlew and the militant segment of the
Ulema.
 Under that leadership it began to over power the Muslim League.
 Jinnah took a back seat to all this and did not join the Indian leaders who met the Viceroy on January 19,
1920 to plead for a settlement with Turkey.
 The third Khilafat Conference was held in February 1920 at Bombay which
passed the resolution for non- cooperation and the Calcutta Provincial
Conference decided to “cease all relations of loyalties” with the British and to
assist the Caliph in all possible ways to keep his dominion was not kept in tact
as it was before the war.
 Jinnah and other fellow moderates did not participate in this Khilafat agitation.
 In a letter to Ghandi, Jinnah said that the movement was bound to lead to
disaster.
 He said that this kind of a plan has appealed only to the illiterate and the
inexperienced youth of the country.
 He said that though he had no power to remove the cause, he wished to advise
his countrymen against the dire consequences of such an extreme act.
 Thus Jinnah opposed Gandhi’s plan of starting a mass non-violent, non-cooperation movement
all over the country.
 Gandhi became the head of the Khilafat movement and declared that the Indians would boycott
all British goods, courts, institutions, elections etc.
 He urged that such large scale protest movement would force the British to grant India self rule.
 He had envisaged four progressive stages of the movement. First the resignation of titles and
offices.
 Second, with drawl from all government services except police and military.
 Third, with-drawl from police and military, and fourth, suspension of payment of taxes to the
State.
 The Quaid on the other hand, felt that the Indians should fight Imperialism constitutionally
instead.
 The Nagpur session, which was thirty-fifth Congress, was held in December 1920.
 Gandhi’s non-cooperation movement had been approved at a special session at Amritsar and
during the Nagpur session, Jinnah was the only person who had the courage to openly oppose
 The Khilafat movement intensified when Maulana Abdul Bari called on the
Muslims to migrate from India.
 Many young Muslims migrated to Afghanistan where they were looted and
ruined. Another unpleasant resultant of the Khilafat movement were Moplah riots
of 1921.
 In Malabar, the Moplah Muslim peasants and farmers rose against the Hindu
landlords. That development created a rift between the Muslims and the Hindus.
 The non-cooperation movement was called off after the Chauri Chaura tragedy in
which twenty-two policemen were burnt alive by a mob on February 5th 1922.
 The Congress negotiated with the government, Pandit Malaviya acting as the
mediator.
 The government agreed to let off the civil disobedience prisoners, if the Congress
called off the boycott.
 Also, a Round Table conference was to be arranged on March 22nd
between the government and the Congress.
 On the other hand the developments in Turkey were very
disappointing for the Indian Muslims as the in itself was abolished.
 The Muslim League was reduced to an accessory of the Congress and
did not meet as a self-sufficient body till 1924.
 Jinnah learnt a lot from the Khilafat movement.
 It disillusioned him with the Congress and the British rulers and
strengthened his faith to work for the intrests of the Muslims.
 He worked hard to bring the Muslims out of their demoralized state of
mind and reorganize them under the banner of the Muslim League.
 The Quaid said:
the weapon will not destroy the British
empire… it is neither logical nor is it
politically sound or wise, nor practically
capable of being put in execution.”
Mass Movements: 
Two mass movements were organized in 1919-1922 to
oppose the British rule in India are the Khilafat
movement and the Non-Cooperation movement.

› The movements, despite having different issues, adopted a

unified plan of action of non-violence and non-
cooperation.
› This time period saw the unification of Congress and the
Muslim League. Many political demonstrations took place
with the joint effort of both these parties.
Causes of the Movements: The following factors served as the background to the two
movements:

› Government Hostilities: The Rowlatt Act, the imposition of martial law in Punjab and the 
Jallianwalla Bagh massacre exposed the brutal and uncivilised face of the foreign rule.

 The Hunter Commission on the Punjab atrocities proved to be eyewash.

 The House of Lords (of the British Parliament) endorsed General Dyer’s action.
› Discontented Indians: The Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms with their ill- conceived
scheme of Dyarchy failed to satisfy the rising demand of the Indians for self-government.
› Economic Hardships: The economic situation of the country in the post-War years had
become alarming with a rise in prices of commodities, decrease in production of Indian
industries, increase in burden of taxes and rents etc.

 Almost all sections of society suffered economic hardship due to the war and this strengthened the anti-
British attitude.
 Khilafat (Caliphate) Issue:
Turkey’s Alliance against British : The Muslims all over the world, including India, regarded the sultan of
Turkey as their spiritual leader, Khalifa (Caliph).

› During the First World War, Turkey had allied with Germany and Austria against the British.
1. Discontented Indian Muslims: The Indian Muslims supported the government during the First World War
with an understanding that the sacred places of Ottoman Empire would be in the hands of Khalifa.

› However, after the War, the Ottoman Empire was divided, Turkey was dismembered and the Khalifa was
removed from power.
› This angered the Muslims who took it as an insult to the Khalifa. The Ali brothers, Shoukat Ali and Mohammad
Ali started the Khilafat Movement against the British government.

 This movement took place between 1919 and 1924.

2. Khilafat Committee: In early 1919, the All India Khilafat Committee was formed under the leadership of
the Ali brothers, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, Ajmal Khan and Hasrat Mohani, to force the British
Government to change its attitude to Turkey.

› Thus, the grounds for a country-wide agitation was prepared.

› An All India Khilafat Conference was held in Delhi in November 1919 and the call was made to boycott the British
goods.
1. Demands of Indian Muslims: In India, the Muslims demanded from the British
that:

› The Khalifa’s control over Muslim sacred places should be retained.

› The Khalifa should be left with sufficient territories after territorial arrangements.
2. Congress’ Initial Stand: The support of the Congress was essential for the
Khilafat movement to succeed.

› Although Mahatma Gandhi was in favour of launching Satyagraha and non-cooperation

against the Government on the Khilafat issue, the Congress was not united on this form
of political action.
› The Congress, later, felt inclined to provide its support as it was a golden opportunity to
unite the Hindus and Muslims and to bring Muslim participation in such mass
movements.
The Muslim League also decided to give full support to the Congress and its agitation
on political questions.
Beginning of Non-Cooperation:
› By the repressive measures of the Jallianwala Bagh
Massacre and the denial of justice, Gandhi observed that
“the only effective means to vindicate national honour
and to prevent a repetition of the wrongs in future is
the establishment of Swaraj”.
 Consequently, the non-co-operation campaign was
inaugurated by Mahatma Gandhi on 1  August, 1919.
st

 The Movement was initiated in support of the Khilafat

Movement.
During the Movement:
› Spread of Non-violence Message: Millions of the countrymen stopped
their work on that day as a mark of their support to Gandhi and as antipathy towards the
Government.
 Gandhi along with Ali-brothers made extensive tours to preach the message of national unity
and non-cooperation with the government.
› Boycott of British Titles and Goods: The programme of non-cooperation
consisted of a surrender of British titles and honours, boycott of British
Courts, Legislatures and educational institutions as well as the boycott of foreign-
made goods.
 People lit public bonfires of foreign cloth. The imports of foreign cloth fell drastically between
1920 and 1922.
› Promotion of Swadeshi: The boycott led to the promotion of Swadeshi
 goods especially hand-spun and hand-woven Khadi cloth, the removal of
untouchability, the promotion of Hindu-Muslim unity and abstention of alcoholic
beverage.Charkha became a household article.
People’s Response to the Movement:
Students: Students in thousands left schools and colleges established by the Government and joined the movement in
large numbers.
Middle Class People: They initially led the movement but later showed a lot of reservations about Gandhi’s
programme.
Businessmen: The economic boycott received support from the Indian business group because they had benefited
from the nationalists’ emphasis on the use of swadeshi.
Peasants: There was a massive participation by the peasants. However, it further led to the confrontation between the
‘lower and upper castes’.
The movement gave an opportunity to the toiling masses to express their real feelings against the British as well as their Indian masters
and oppressors.
Women: Women participated in large numbers, gave up purdah and offered their ornaments for the Tilak Fund.
They took active part in picketing before the shops selling foreign cloth and liquor.
The Tilak Swaraj Fund was announced by Mahatma Gandhi after one year of the beginning of the Non-Cooperation movement.
The Fund was a homage to Bal Gangadhar Tilak on his first death anniversary, aimed at collecting Rs 1 crore to aid India’s freedom struggle and resistance to the
British rule.

Government’s Response: The police resorted to firing which took the lives of a number of people.
Congress and Khilafat Volunteer Organizations were declared unlawful and illegal.
Public meetings were banned and most of the leaders barring Gandhi were arrested.
Withdrawal of Non-Cooperation Movement: 

In February 1922, at Chauri Chaura, Uttar Pradesh, twenty two

policemen were brutally killed by the violent mob after the conflict
between the mob and the policemen of the Thana.
› The news shocked Gandhi too much. Not happy with the increasingly
violent trend of the movement, he immediately announced the
withdrawal of the movement.
› Most of the nationalist leaders including C.R. Das, Motilal Nehru,
Subhash Bose, Jawaharlal Nehru, however, expressed their
disagreement at Gandhi’s decision to withdraw the movement.
› In March 1922, Gandhi was arrested and sentenced to six years in jail.
Causes of Failure of the Movement
 No Negotiations by Government: The movement began showing signs of
fatigue as it was not possible to sustain any movement at a high pitch for very long.
› The Government seemed to be in no mood for negotiations.
 Loss of Relevance of Khilafat Issue: The central theme of the agitation,
the Khilafat question, dissipated soon.
› In November 1922, the people of Turkey rose under Mustafa Kamal Pasha and deprived
the Sultan of political power. Turkey was made a secular state.
› A European style of legal system was established in Turkey and extensive rights were granted
to women.
› Education was nationalised and modern agriculture and industries developed.
› In 1924, the Khilafat was abolished.
 Lack of Active Response: In places like Calcutta, Bombay
and Madras, which were centres of elite politicians, the
response to Gandhi’s call was very limited.
› The response to the call for resignation from the government
service, surrendering of titles, etc., was not taken seriously.
 No Abstinence from Violence: People had not learnt or
fully understood the method of non-violence.
 The Chauri-Chaura incident marred the spirit of the
movement leading to the withdrawal of Non-Cooperation
movement
NEHRU REPORT
 The Nehru Report had the primary motive of assigning
Dominion status to India within the British Commonwealth.
 The major components of the Nehru Report are:
 Bill of Rights
 Assigning Equal rights to men and women as citizens
 Formation of a federal form of government with residuary
powers in the hands of Centre
 Proposal for the creation of Supreme Court
 Background
 When the Simon Commission came to India in 1928, it was vehemently opposed by
Indians especially the Congress Party for the lack of a single Indian in the Commission.
 So, the Secretary of State for India, Lord Birkenhead challenged the Indian leaders to
draft a constitution for India, implicitly implying that Indians were not capable of finding
a common path and drafting a constitution.
 The political leaders accepted this challenge and an All Party Conference was held and a
committee appointed with the task of drafting a constitution.
 This committee was headed by Motilal Nehru with Jawaharlal Nehru as the Secretary.
Other members were Ali Imam, Tej Bahadur Sapru, Mangal Singh, M S Aney, Subhas
Chandra Bose, Shuaib Qureshi and G R Pradhan.
 The draft constitution prepared by the committee was called the Nehru Committee
Report or Nehru Report. The report was submitted at the Lucknow session of the all-
party conference on August 28, 1928.
 This was the first major attempt by Indians to draft a constitution for themselves.
Recommendations of the report
 Dominion status for India (like Canada, Australia, etc.) within the British
Commonwealth. (This point was a bone of contention with the younger set of
leaders including Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose who favoured
complete independence.)
 Nineteen fundamental rights including the right to vote for men and women
above 21 years of age, unless disqualified.
 Equal rights for men and women as citizens.
 No state religion.
 No separate electorates for any community. It did provide for reservation of
minority seats. It provided for reservation for seats for Muslims at the centre
and in provinces where they were in a minority and not in Bengal and
Punjab. Similarly, it provided for reservation for non-Muslims in the NWFP.
 A federal form of government with residual powers with the
centre. There would be a bicameral legislature at the centre. The
ministry would be responsible to the legislature.
 Governor-General to be the constitutional head of India. He
would be appointed by the British monarch.
 A proposal for the creation of a Supreme Court.
 The provinces would be created along linguistic lines.
 The language of the country would be Indian, written either in
Devanagari (Sanskrit/Hindi), Telugu, Tamil, Kannada, Bengali,
Marathi or Gujarati in character. Usage of English to be
permitted
 Responses
 The issue of communal representation was controversial. In December 1927, many
Muslim leaders met Motilal Nehru at Delhi and suggested a few proposals. These were
accepted by Congress at its Madras session. These ‘Delhi Proposals’ were:
 1/3rd representation of Muslims in the Central Legislature.
 Representation to Muslims in Punjab and Bengal in proportion to their populations.
 Formation of three new provinces with a Muslim majority – Sindh, Baluchistan and
North-West Frontier Province (NWFP).
 However, the Hindu Mahasabha was opposed to the formation of the new provinces and
the communal representation in Bengal and Punjab. They pressed for a strictly unitary
system. The report made concessions to the Hindu group by stating that joint
electorates would be the system followed with reservation of seats for Muslims only
where they were in a minority. Sindh would be created into a new province (by severing
from Bombay) only after dominion status was granted and weightage would be given to
the Hindu minority there.
 At the all-party conference held in Calcutta in 1928 to discuss
the report, Jinnah made three amendments to the report:
 1/3rd representation of Muslims in the Central Legislature.
 Reservation to Muslims in Punjab and Bengal in proportion
to their populations until adult suffrage was established.
 Residual powers to be vested with the provinces and not the
centre.
 Since these demands of Jinnah were not met, he gave the
‘Fourteen Points’ in March 1929, which served as the basis of
all future agenda of the League.
 The report made concessions to the Hindu group by stating that joint electorates
would be the system followed with reservation of seats for Muslims only where
they were in a minority. Sindh would be created into a new province (by
severing from Bombay) only after dominion status was granted and weightage
would be given to the Hindu minority there.
 At the all-party conference held in Calcutta in 1928 to discuss the report, Jinnah
made three amendments to the report:
 1/3rd representation of Muslims in the Central Legislature.
 Reservation to Muslims in Punjab and Bengal in proportion to their populations
until adult suffrage was established.
 Residual powers to be vested with the provinces and not the centre.
 Since these demands of Jinnah were not met, he gave the ‘Fourteen Points’ in
March 1929, which served as the basis of all future agenda of the League.
Jinnah’s Fourteen Points

 Federal constitution with residual powers with the provinces.

 Provincial autonomy.
 No constitutional amendment without the agreement of the states.
 All legislatures and elected bodies to have adequate Muslim
representation without reducing Muslim majority in a province to
minority or equality.
 Adequate Muslim representation of Muslims in the services and in self-
governing bodies.
 1/3rd representation of Muslims in the Central Legislature.
 1/3rd Muslim members in the central and state cabinets.
 Separate electorates.
 No bill to be passed in any legislature if 3/4th of a minority
community considers it against its interests.
 Any reorganisation of territories not to affect the Muslim
majority in Bengal, Punjab and the NWFP.
 Separation of Sindh from Bombay Presidency.
 Constitutional reforms in the NWFP and Baluchistan.
 Full religion freedom for all communities.
 Protection of the religious, cultural, educational and language
rights of Muslims.
  
Comparisons
 The Nehru Committee’s greatest blow was the rejection of separate electorates but Quaid-e-
Azam was in the favor of separate Muslims electorate.
 In 14 points of Muhammad Ali Jinnah weightage for Minorities was demanded but Nehru
in his report did not compromise with our Quaid.
 Nehru report demand Strong Central Government. On the other end Quaid-e-Azam was
believe on the Provincial Autonomy.
 Jinnah was in the favor of Inclusions of Muslims in the cabinet but Nehru was against the
inclusion of Muslims in the cabinet.
 Quaid-e-Azam demanded 1/3rd Representation in central government for Muslims but
Nehru comment 1/4th representation for Muslim in central government in his report.
 It is true that demand of separation of Sindh from Bombay was considered in the Nehru
Report as Jinnah mention in his 14 points but the condition of self-economy was also put
forward.
Conclusion:
 The Nehru Report was nothing else than a Congress document and thus
totally opposed by Muslims of the Sub-continent.
 The Hindus under Congress threatened the government with a
disobedience movement if the Nehru report was not implemented into the
Act by December 31, 1929.
 This Hindu attitude proved to be a milestone in the freedom movement of
the Muslims.
 It also proved to be a turning point in the life of Muhammad Ali Jinnah.
After reading the Nehru Report, Jinnah announced a ‘parting of the ways’.
 The Nehru Report reflected the inner prejudice and narrow-minded
approach of the Hindus.
 Allahabad Address [1930]
 Several Muslim leaders and thinkers having insight into the Hindu-Muslim question proposed
separation of Muslim India.
 However, the most lucid explanation of the inner feelings of the Muslim community was given by
Allama Muhammad Iqbal in his presidential address to the All-India Muslim League at Allahabad in
1930. Allama Muhammad Iqbal was a poet, philosopher and thinker who had gained country-wide
fame and recognition by 1930.
 Political events took an ominous turn. There was a two-pronged attack on the Muslim interests.
 On one hand, the Hindus offered a tough opposition by proposing the Nehru report as the ultimate
constitution for India.
 On the other, the British government in India in the course of observations on the Simon
Commission report ignored the Muslim demands.
 At this critical juncture, Iqbal realized that the peculiar problems of the Muslims in
North-West India could only be understood by people belonging to this region and
that in order to survive they would have to chalk out their own line of action.
 Allama Iqbal defined the Muslims of India as a nation and suggested that there could be no
possibility of peace in the country unless and until they were recognized as a nation and
under a federal system the Muslim majority units were given the same privileges which
were to be given to the Hindu majority units.
 It was the only way in which both the Muslims and the Hindus could prosper in accordance
with their respective cultural values.
 As a permanent solution to the Hindu-Muslim problem, Allama Iqbal proposed that the
Punjab, North West Frontier Province, Baluchistan and Sind should be converted into one
province and declared that the North-West part of the country was destined to unite, self
government within the British empire or without the British empire.
 This he suggested was the only way to do away with the communal riots and bring peace in
the sub-continent.
 The greatest historical significance of Allama Iqbal’s Allahabad address was that it washed
all political confusions from the minds of the Muslims thus enabling them to determine
their new destination.
 The national spirit which Iqbal fused among the Muslims of
India later on developed into an ideological base of
Pakistan.
  Allama Iqbal explained in his address that Islam was the
major formative factor in the life history of Indian Muslims.
 It furnished those basic emotions and loyalties which
gradually unify scattered individuals and groups and finally
transform them into a well-defined people, possessing a
moral consciousness of their own.
 
CONGRESS MINISTRIES
Government of India Act, 1935:
 The Government of India Act, 1935 was not fully promulgated but the only provincial part was introduced in
the country. Muslim League and the Congress criticized it but agreed to contest provincial elections.
The 1937 Elections:
 The elections of 1937 were held with the restricted franchise and separate electorate. The Congress projected
itself as an all-India force representing all religions and factions of the society.
 The Muslim League contested for the Muslim seats. There was a tough competition from the other Muslim
organizations.
 The elections were completed in February 1937. The Congress got majorities in five provinces, Madras, U.P.,
C.P., Bihar, and Orissa. It emerged as the largest party in Bombay and won 704 out of 1585 general seats.
 The Muslim League performed poorly in the elections and got only about 21 percent of Muslim seats without
winning majority anywhere, Bengal, Punjab, NWFP, and Sind. It was mostly due to the organizational
problems and opposition by local Muslim groups.
Formation of Provincial Governments:
 In July 1937, Congress formed governments in 6 provinces.
 In NWFP, Khudai Khidmatgar and Congress formed a coalition government.
 In the Muslim majority provinces, the Muslim League could not form the governments.
 The Muslim League desired to be in government in the U.P. but the Congress consented to
a conditional support:
 1. Dissolve AIML Parliamentary Board
2. AIML members not to function as a separate group
3. AIML members to express allegiance to the Congress
 Definitely the above-mentioned terms were a device to subvert the existence of the Muslim
League. Therefore, no agreement was possible on this issue.
 Policies of the Congress Governments:
(July 1937-Nov. 1939)
 First all Congress governments in the provinces launched anti-Muslim drive basically to exclude the ML
and other Muslim organizations from the government making process.
 The Congress leaders had come to know that the ML had got roots in the masses. They started ‘Muslim
Mass Contact’ movement to defame the ML in their favour.
 They were making cultural and educational policies that promoted the Hindu culture and symbols in the
name of Indian culture.
 They introduced Banda-Mataram anthem from Annandmath in the institutions and offices etc.
 The Hindi language was given top most importance in their policies.
 Wardha Educational Scheme was to convert Muslims into Hindus through primary educational literature.
 Projection of Hindu heroes like Gandhi and distortion of Muslim history became their moral creed. They
followed the policy of discrimination in services or new recruitment for jobs.
 The Congress ministries adopted overall negative and cruel attitude, especially towards the Muslim
activists. This unjust treatment compelled the Muslims to be disciplined in every sphere of life.
Muslim Response:
 The Muslims were well aware of the theocratic inclination of the Hindu people. They
arranged a close monitoring of the government. They publicized their policies and
raised the issues. The mobilization of Muslims on these matters required keen probe
to collect the original facts of the Hindu atrocities.
The Pirpur Report:
 On March 28, 1938, the Council of ML appointed an eight-member committee under
the presidentship of Raja Syed Muhammad Mehdi of Pirpur that presented its report
on, November 15, 1938. It tried to dig out the cruelties of the Congress ministries in
seven provinces. The report took up the Congress support to the rival Muslim
organizations, intimidation and threats to the pro-Muslim League people.
The Sharif Report, March 1939
 The ML deputed Mr. Shareef with members to investigate the injustices under the
dictatorial rule of the Hindus. This report mainly collected the facts, concentrating
on ill treatment of the government with the Muslims in Bihar.
 The Fazl-ul- Haq Report: (December 1939)
 A. K. Fazl-ul-Haq published a pamphlet entitled Muslim Sufferings Under the Rule of Congress and made many alarming
revelations e.g. forbidding of Azan, attacks in mosques, noisy processions of the Hindu scoundrels, forbidding of the cow-
slaughter etc. This pamphlet responded the indictments by the Congress on the Muslims.
 All the reports described the Congress government as an attempt to create ‘Hindu Raj’ that wanted to overwhelm the Muslim
culture and their identity. It was a rigorous threat to the Muslims’ interests.

 Muslim League Activism:

 The Muslim League highlighted the issues and mobilized the Muslims to counter them adequately. It reorganized the Muslim
community to cope with the situation. The ML arranged its session at Lucknow in October 1937. Many prominent leaders like
Fazlul Haq participated in the session while Sikander Hayat and Saadullah announced their support to the ML.
 The Muslim leaders shed a sharp criticism on the Congress policies. They protested against the reduction of status of Urdu and
other Muslim related issues. They created realization, amongst the Muslims, of what can happen under the Congress rule and
urged for serious thinking about the future political and constitutional arrangements. They unearthed the real objectives of the
Congress and urged the need of unity among the Muslims under the banner of Muslim League.
 The Second World War (September 1939) proved blessing for the Muslims in a sense that the Congress Ministries resigned in
November 1939. The Muslims observed Day of Deliverance on December 22, 1939.
 The ML redefined its position during the World War II. They expressed their enthusiasm that no constitution to be enforced
without the consent of the Muslims. They eradicated their organizational weaknesses and refined their objectives keeping the
experiences of the Congress ministries.
Lahore Resolution (1940)

 With the introduction of political reforms in India by the British, the Muslims
realized that they would become a permanent minority in a democratic system
and it would never be possible for them to protect their fundamental rights.
 They only constituted one-fourth of the total Indian population and were much
lesser in number than the majority Hindu community.
 To protect their political, social, and religious rights they first demanded
separate electorates.
 However, due to the political developments that took place in the country, they
realized that even the right of separate electorates would not be enough and they
had to search for some other long-term solution.
 Muhammad Iqbal, the poet-philosopher in his famous Allahabad address made it
clear that Islam has its own social and economic system, and to implement it a
political entity was required.
 When Jinnah came back to India to reorganize Muslim League and to make it a
political party of the Muslim masses, he got the opportunity to interact with Iqbal.
 Iqbal through his letters tried to persuade Jinnah that the only solution available
was a separate state for the Indian Muslims where they could spend their lives
according to the teachings of the Holy Quran and Sunnah of the Prophet (SAW).
 Though Jinnah was convinced by the late 1930s, being a realist he was not ready to
announce the new plan until he was confident that the vast majority of the Muslims
were behind him.
 The overwhelming support from the Muslim masses for his call to celebrate Day of
Deliverance on December 22, 1939, was a vote of confidence given by the Muslim
Community in the leadership of Jinnah, whom they by then had started considering
as their Quaid-i-Azam.
Organization
 With the clarity of mind and backing of the Muslim community behind
him, Quaid-i-Azam called for the 27th annual session of the All India
Muslim League to be held from March 22 to 24, 1940 at Lahore.
 Sir Shah Nawaz Khan of Mamdot was made the head of the reception
committee and Main Bashir Ahmad was nominated as secretary of the
session.
 Prominent leaders including Chaudhry Khaliquzzam, Nawab Muhammad
Ismail Khan, Nawab Bahadur Yar Jang, A.K. Fazlul Haq, Sardar Abdur
Rab Nishtar, Abdullah Haroon, Qazi Muhammad Isa, I.I. Chundrigar,
Sardar Aurangzeb Khan, Khawaja Nazimuddin, Abdul Hashim and Malik
Barkat Ali, etc. attended the session.
Khaksar Tragedy
 Due to the Khaksar Tragedy that took place on March 19, Sir Sikandar
Hayat and others tried to persuade Jinnah to postpone the session but
the Quaid was not ready to delay it.
 To participate in the session, he reached Lahore by train on March 21.
He went straight to Mayo Hospital to see the wounded Khaksars.
 By doing so he managed to handle well the issue of Khaksar
disturbances.
 On his arrival, Jinnah told the print media that the All India Muslim
League will make a historic decision in the upcoming session.
Quaid-i-Azam’s Address
 The venue of the session was Minto Park near Badshahi Masjid and Lahore Fort.
 The inaugural session was planned at around three in the afternoon on March 22.
People started coming in the morning and by the afternoon the park was jam-packed.
 According to a rough estimate, around 100,000 attended the public meeting. At the
beginning of the session, the welcome address was presented by the Nawab of Mamdot.
 This was followed by the historical speech of Quaid-i-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah.
 The Quaid in his two hours presidential address in English narrated the events that
took place in the past few months and concluded, “Hindus and the Muslims belong to
two different religious philosophies, social customs and literature.
 They neither inter-marry nor inter-dine together, and, indeed, they belong to two
different civilizations that are based mainly on conflicting ideas and conceptions.
 Their concepts on life and of life are different. It is quite clear that Hindus and Muslims derive their
inspiration from different sources of history.
 They have different epics, different heroes and different episodes. Very often the hero of one is a foe of the
other, and likewise, their victories and defeats overlap.
 To yoke together two such nations under a single state, one as a numerical minority and the other as a
majority, must lead to growing discontent and final destruction of any fabric that may be so built up for
the government of such a state.”
 He further claimed, “Mussalmans are a nation according to any definition of a nationhood.
 We wish our people to develop to the fullest spiritual, cultural, economic, social and political life in a way
that we think best and in consonance with our own ideals and according to the genius of our people”.
 During his speech, the Quaid quoted the letter written by Lala Lajpat Rai in 1924
to C.R. Das in which he mentioned that the Hindus and the Muslims were two
separate and distinct nations that could never be merged into a single nation.
When Malik Barkat Ali claimed that Lala Lajpat Rai was a “Nationalist Hindu
leader”, Quaid responded, “No Hindu can be a nationalist. Every Hindu is a Hindu
first and last.”
 The Resolution
 On March 23, A.K. Fazul Haq, the Chief Minister of Bengal, moved the historical Lahore
Resolution. The Resolution consisted of five paragraphs and each paragraph was only one sentence
long. Although clumsily worded, it delivered a clear message. The resolution declared:
 While approving and endorsing the action taken by the Council and the Working Committee of the
All-India Muslim League, as indicated in their resolutions dated the 27th of August, 17th and 18th
of September and 22nd of October, 1939, and 3rd of February 1940, on the constitutional issue,
this session of the All-India Muslim League emphatically reiterates that the scheme of Federation
embodied in the Government of India Act, 1935 is totally unsuited to, and unworkable in the
peculiar conditions of this country and is altogether unacceptable to Muslim India.
 It further records its emphatic view that while the declaration dated the 18th of October, 1939,
made by the Viceroy on behalf of His Majesty’s Government is reassuring in so far as it declares
that the policy and plan on which the Government of India Act, 1935 is based will be reconsidered
in consultation with the various parties, interests and communities in India, Muslim India will not
be satisfied unless the whole constitutional plan is reconsidered de novo and that no revised plan
would be acceptable to the Muslims unless it is framed with their approval and consent.
 Resolved that it is the considered view of this session of the All-India Muslim League that no
constitutional plan would be workable in this country or acceptable to Muslims unless it is
designed on the following basic principle, namely, that geographically contiguous units are
demarcated into regions which should be so constituted, with such territorial readjustments as
may be necessary, that the areas in which the Muslims are numerically in a majority, as in the
North-Western and Eastern Zones of India, should be grouped to constitute ‘Independent States’
in which the constituent units shall be autonomous and sovereign.

 That adequate, effective and mandatory safeguards should be specifically provided in the
constitution for minorities in these units and in these regions for the protection of their religious,
cultural, economic, political, administrative and other rights and interests in consultation with
them; and in other parts of India where Mussalmans are in a minority, adequate, effective and
mandatory safeguard shall be specially provided in the constitution for them and other
minorities for the protection of their religious, cultural, economic, political, administrative and
other rights and interests in consultation with them.
 This session further authorizes the Working Committee to frame a scheme of constitution in
accordance with these basic principles, providing for the assumption finally by the respective
regions of all powers such as defence, external affairs, communications, customs and such other
 Controversies
 The name Pakistan was not used in the resolution and the official name of the resolution was Lahore
Resolution.
 It was the Hindu newspapers including Partap, Bande Matram, Milap, Tribune, etc., who ironically coined the
name Pakistan Resolution.
 However, the idea was appreciated by the Muslim masses and the Resolution is more known as Pakistan
Resolution.
 Secondly, the Government and the people of Pakistan wrongly celebrate March 23 as a national day in
Pakistan.
 The actual day when the resolution was passed was March 24. It was only presented on March 23. Lastly, the
word “states” and not “state” was mentioned in the Resolution.
 It means that the authors of the Resolution were foreseeing two separate states in the north-western and
eastern zones of India.
 But if one has a good look at the developments that followed, he or she would conclude that either the word
“states” was included as a mistake or the League leadership soon had a second thought to their idea.
 A Resolution passed at the 1941 Madras session of the League stated, “Everyone should clearly understand that
we are striving for one independent and sovereign Muslim State.” In all the speeches that Quaid delivered, he
also used the word “an independent homeland” or “an independent Muslim state”.
Hindu Reaction
 The Hindu reaction was, of course, quick, bitter, and malicious. They
called the “Pakistan” demand “anti-national.”
 They characterized it as “vivisection; above all, they denounced it as
imperialist – inspired to obstruct India’s march to freedom.”
 In denouncing the demand outright, they, however, missed the central
fact of the Indian political situation; the astonishingly tremendous
response of the Pakistan demand had elicited from the Muslim masses.
 They also failed to take cognizance of the fact that a hundred million
Muslims were now supremely conscious of their distinct nationhood and
were prepared to stake everything to actualize their self-perceived destiny
– the creation of an independent Muslim state in the sub-continent.
British Reaction
 The British were equally hostile to the Muslim demand for at least two
important reasons.
 First, they had long considered themselves as the architects of the unity of
India and an Indian nation.
 Second, they had long regarded the super-imposed unity under tax Britannica
as their greatest achievement and lasting contribution in history.
 And the Pakistan demand threatened to undo these presumed achievements
on which the British had long prided.
 However, despite the Hindu denunciation and the British alarm, the course of
Muslim, indeed Indian, politics was from now on firmly set towards Pakistan.
Conclusion
 The All India Muslim League Resolution of March 1940, commonly known as
the Pakistan Resolution, is undoubtedly the most important event that changed
the course of Indian history and left deep marks on world history. With the
passage of this Resolution, the Muslims of the sub-continent changed
their demand from “Separate Electorates” to a “Separate State.”
  This Resolution rejected the idea of a United India and the creation of an
independent Muslim state was set as their ultimate goal.
 It gave new energy and courage to the Muslims of the region who gathered
around Quaid-i-Azam from the platform of the Muslim League to struggle for
their freedom.
 The dynamic leadership of the Quaid and the commitment and devotion of the
followers made it possible for them to achieve an independent state within seven
years of their struggle, and that too when the odds were against them.
June 3rd Plan 1947
 The British government finally decided to divide the country into two separates
states after all the efforts of keeping Hindus and Muslims together in a single
state went in vain. Lord Ismay, the Chief of Staff of Lord Mountbatten, was
asked to frame the partition plan of India.
 Though the plan was deliberately kept secret from the Indians yet Nehru
grabbed the chance of seeing the plan before it was put before the Indians.
 The British Government approved the Plan and sent it to India in May 1947.
The plan announced on 3 June 1947 suggested these points:
 The British Government would divide India into two separate states.
 Dominion status would be given to the successor governments of the two states.
 A Boundary Commission would be appointed to demarcate the boundaries if any of the
communal group decides in favor of dividing the province of Punjab and Bengal.
 The Sindh Legislative Assembly would be authorized to opt out whether it desires to join the
current Constituent Assembly or the New Constituent Assembly.
 A Referendum would be conducted in the North West Frontier Province to know the public
opinion on the question of joining the new state of Pakistan. The Electoral College for the
Referendum would be the same as it was for in 1946.
 Baluchistan would be granted freedom of choice.
 A referendum would be conducted in Sylhet to take the decision whether it wants to join
East Bengal or stay as a part of Asam.
 3rd June Plan materialized the dream of Iqbal of a separate state for the Muslim of the Sub-
Continent and bestowed them with Muslim state of Pakistan on August 14, 1947. The
Muslim League, therefore, hailed the Plan.
 According to the Plan, the British Government transferred the Power to the governments of
the two New States of Pakistan and India.