Petroleum Refining Engineering

CH-514

Dr.SAUD HASHMI
Assistant Professor
E-mail: saudhashmi@neduet.edu.pk
 International Publications
1. Mohammad Vatankhah-Varnoosfaderani,Amin GhavamiNejad,Hashmi S,Florian J. Stadler
“Hydrogen Bonding in Aprotic Solvents, a New Strategy for Gelation of Bioinspired
Catecholic Copolymers with N –Isopropylamide”,Macromolecular Rapid Communication,
Volume 36,issue5, pages 447–452, March 2015 IF: 4.6.
2. Hashmi S,  Mohammad Vatankhah-Varnoosfaderani,  GhavamiNejad,  Francis O.
Obiweluozor,Bing Du, Florian J. Stadler ,” Self-associations and temperature dependence of
aqueous solutions of zwitterionically modified N-isopropylacrylamide copolymers”,
Rheologica Acta, DOI 10.1007/s00397-015-0837-z,February 2015 IF: 1.8.
3. Hashmi S, GhavamiNejad A, Stadler FJ,” Oscillations in modulus in solutions of graphene
oxide and reduced graphene oxide with grafted poly-N-isopropylamide”, Soft Matter,
2015,11, 1315-1325 IF: 4.2
4. G. Gnana Kumar , Hashmi S, C. Karthikeyan, Amin GhavamiNejad, Mohammad
Vatankhah-Varnoosfaderani, Florian J. Stadler, “Carbonaceous nanocomposite hydrogels –
versatile building blocks for microbial fuel cell applications”,Macromolecular Rapid
Communication,Volume 35, Issue 21, pages 1861–1865, November 2014 IF: 4.6
5. GhavamiNejad A, Hashmi S, Mohammad Vatankhah-Varnoosfaderani, Florian J. Stadler,”
Network formation in graphene oxide composites with surface grafted PNIPAM chains in
aqueous solution characterized by rheological experiments”, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys.,
2014,16, 8675-8685. IF: 3.8
 International Publications
6. Francis O. Obiweluozor, Amin GhavamiNejad, Hashmi S, Mohammad Vatankhah-
Varnoosfaderaniand, Florian J. Stadler, “A NIPAM–Zwitterion Copolymer: Rheological
Interpretation of the Specific Ion Effect on the LCST”, Macromolecular Chemistry and
Physics, 2014, DOI: 10.1002/macp.201300778. IF: 2.3
7. Mohammad Vatankhah-Varnoosfaderani, Hashmi S, Amin GhavamiNejad, Florian J.
Stadler, “Rapid Self-Healing and Triple Stimuli Responsiveness of a Supramolecular
Polymer Gel Based on Boron-Catechol Interactions in a Novel Water-Soluble Mussel-
Inspired Copolymer”, Polym. Chem., 2014,5, 512-523 IF: 5.4
8. Mohammad-Vatankhah-Varnoosfaderani, Amin GhavamiNejad, Hashmi S, Florian J.
Stadler “Mussel-Inspired pH-triggered Reversible Foamed Gel – the Surprising Effect of
Water”, Chemical Communications 2013, 49, 41, 4685-4687. IF: 6.3
9. Hashmi S, GhavamiNejad A, Obiweluozor F, Vatankhah-Varnoosfaderani M, Stadler FJ,
"Supramolecular Interaction Controlled Diffusion Mechanism and Improved Mechanical
Behavior of Hybrid Hydrogel Systems of Zwitterions and CNT", Macromolecules, 2012, 45
(24),pp 9804–9815. IF: 5.5
10. Hashmi S, Obiweluozor F, GhavamiNejad A, Vatankhah-Varnoosfaderani M, Stadler FJ,
"On-line Observation of Hydrogels during Swelling and LCST-induced changes", Korea-
Australia Rheology Journal, 2012, 24, 3, 191-198. IF:1.2
 Conference Papers
1. Hashmi S, GhavamiNejad A, Obiweluozor , Stadler FJ,"Rheological Active Self-
associating Supramolecular System of NIPAM-based Zwitterion Copolymer Solutions",
Annual European Rheology Conference, Leuven, Belgium, 2013.
2. Hashmi S,GhavamiNejad A, Obiweluozor F, Vatankhah-Varnoosfaderani M,Stadler
FJ,"Supramolecular pH-triggered Reversible Foamed Gel - the Surprising Effect of Water",
POLYCHAR 21 World Forum on Advanced Materials, Gwangju, Republic of KOREA,
2013.
3. Hashmi S, Obiweluozor F, GhavamiNejad A, Vatankhah-Varnoosfaderani M, Stadler
FJ,"Understanding the Swelling and Rheological Properties of NIPAM-Based Hydrogels
Containing Zwitterions and MWCNTs,"Meeting of the Korean Society of Rheology, Seoul,
2012.
4. Hashmi S, Obiweluozor F, Stadler FJ “Influence of Zwitterionic Monomer on the Rheology
of NIPAM-based Copolymer Solutions”, Fall Meeting of the Korean Society of Rheology,
Jinju South Korea, 2012.
 Sessional Marks Distribution
• Max Marks : 40
• Home Works: 5 marks
• Special Topic Presentation : 15 marks
• Test (02) : 10 marks each
Course title: Petroleum Refining Engineering
Course Code: CH-514

Objective of the course: Petroleum industries are the most prolific and dynamic
industries all over the world.

The main objective of this course is to provide a thorough understanding in the

area of crude oil refining, hydrocarbon processing and trends in refinery
operations which is the current need of the country.

The physical and chemical properties of petroleum and petroleum products will be
described, along with major refining processes.

New refinery trends, energy conservation in Refineries, environmental issues and

new alternative energy sources and concept of green chemistry will also be
discussed.

6
 Talk outline

Part 1: Origin – How do oil and gas form?

Part 2: Exploration and Production –

How do we find oil and gas and how is it produced?
 Origin (1): Chemistry
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Petroleum.JPG en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Octane_molecule_3D_model.png

Hydrocarbon

• Oil and gas are made of a mixture of

different hydrocarbons.

• As the name suggests these are large

molecules made up of hydrogen atoms
attached to a backbone of carbon.
Crude Oil
 Origin (2): Plankton
cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=93510

Plant plankton Animal plankton

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Ceratium_hirundinella.jpg en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Copepod.

• Most oil and gas starts life as microscopic plants and animals
that live in the ocean.
 Origin (3): Blooms
serc.carleton.edu/images/microbelife/topics/red_tide_genera.v3.jpg
• Today, most plankton can be
found where deep ocean
currents rise to the surface

• This upwelling water is rich in

nutrients and causes the
plankton to bloom

• Blooms of certain plankton

called dinoflagellates may
give the water a red tinge

© Miriam Godfrey

Dinoflagellate bloom
 Origin (4): On the sea bed
upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/04/Plankton.jpg

When the plankton dies it rains

down on sea bed to form an
organic mush

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Nerr0328.jpg

If there are any animals on the

Sea bed sea bed these will feed on the
organic particles
 Origin (5): Black Shale
upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/04/Plankton.jpg
• However, if there is little or no
oxygen in the water then animals
can’t survive and the organic
mush accumulates

• Where sediment contains

more than 5% organic matter,
it eventually forms a rock
known as a Black Shale

© Earth Science World Image Bank

 Origin (6): Cooking
As Black Shale is buried, it is heated.

Organic matter is first changed by the

increase in temperature into kerogen,
Kerogen which is a solid form of hydrocarbon

Around 90°C, it is changed into a liquid

state, which we call oil
Oil

Around 150°C, it is changed into a gas

Gas

A rock that has produced oil and gas in

www.oilandgasgeology.com/oil_gas_window.jpg
this way is known as a Source Rock
3. Carrier beds
Oil on the move
• Oil is less dense than water
and will rise through the fluid
system of the surrounding rock
• Carrier beds are rock layers
that allow fluids to pass
through them
– Ex: Sandstone
• If petroleum stays buried, it
can become post-mature
 Origin (7): Migration
www.diveco.co.nz/img/gallery/2006/diver_bubbles.jpg • Hot oil and gas is less dense than
the source rock in which it occurs

• Oil and gas migrate upwards up

through the rock in much the same
way that the air bubbles of an
underwater diver rise to the surface

Rising oil

• The rising oil and gas eventually gets

trapped in pockets in the rock called
reservoirs
 Origin (8): Ancient Earth
© Ron Blakey, Arizona Flagstaff

• During mid-Mesozoic times

around 150 million years ago,
conditions were just right
to build up huge thicknesses
of Black Shale source rocks

Ancient Earth

The world’s main oil deposits all formed in warm shallow seas
where plankton bloomed but bottom waters were deoxygenated
1. Source Rocks
Organic Matter

• Sedimentary rocks rich in

organic matter
– 0.5 - 2% by weight
• Most commonly
microscopic marine
material, but it can be land
based material
• Organic material cannot
decay too much
– It has to keep its carbon
4. Traps
• If nothing stops oil from
rising, it will reach
surface
– Ex: The La Brea tar pits
• Traps can be rocks that
do not allow fluids to
pass through them, or
folds and faults in the
rock can trap petroleum
 5. Reservoir rocks
The oil needs to be trapped in a good place

• A good reservoir
rock is:
– Porous: holes
– Permeable: holes are
connected
– so that its fluids can
be produced
(removed from
them)
 EXPLORATION

• Geologic Survey
• Geophysical Surveys
1)Gravity Survey
2)Magnetic Survey
3)Seismic Survey
4)Remote Sensing

21
 Exploration and Production: Seismic
Surveys
Drill here!

Earth Science World Image Bank Image #h5inor Earth Science World Image Bank Image #h5inpj

• Seismic surveys are used to locate likely rock structures

underground in which oil and gas might be found
• Shock waves are fired into the ground. These bounce off layers
of rock and reveal any structural domes that might contain oil
 The Gravity Geophysical Method
• Measurements of gravity provide information
about densities of rocks underground
• Measurements of the gravitational field at a
series of different locations over an area of
interest
• differences in the distribution of densities and
hence rock types

24
 Types of Reservoir Energy
• The energy of compression of the water and
rock within the reservoir.
• The energy of compression of oil within the
reservoir.
• The energy of compression of gas within the
reservoir.
• The energy of compression of waters
contiguous to and in communication with the
petroleum reservoir.

25
Derive Mechanism & Recovery

26
• The higher GOR is caused by higher gas
saturation in the oil leg. The higher gas
saturation is caused by the gas cap gas
migrating from the gas cap into the oil leg as
the pressure declines.

27
 Solution gas drive reservoirs
• Production while undersaturated
• Production while saturated but the free gas is
immobile
• Production while saturated and the free gas is
mobile and the producing gas-oil ratio (GOR)
is increasing
• Production while saturated and the free gas is
mobile and the producing GOR is decreasing

28
• Stage 1
• No free gas
• Producing GOR is equal to initial dissolved GOR
• Fractional oil and gas recoveries are small and
approximately equal
• Reservoir pressure drops rapidly
• Duration of stage depends on degree of initial
undersaturation. The greater the initial
undersaturation, the longer the duration of Stage
1. The stage duration is generally short

29
• Stage 2
• Reservoir pressure is less than bubblepoint
• Free gas appears, but the saturation is small
and immobile
• Producing GOR is slightly less than initial
dissolved GOR
• Rate of pressure decline is mitigated

30
• Stage 3
• Free gas becomes mobile
• Producing GOR increases steadily
• Fractional gas recovery exceeds fractional oil
recovery
• Longest of all stages; typically consumes 85 to
95% of primary recovery
• Primary recovery may be terminated during this
stage

31
• Stage 4
• Reservoir pressure is very low, typically less
than 100 to 400 psia
• Producing GOR decreases
• Primary recovery often terminated before this
stage is realized

32
Oil and Gas fields
Oil and natural gas are produced by the same geological process according fossil
fuel suggestion: anaerobic decay of organic matter deep under the Earth's surface.
As a consequence, oil and natural gas are often found together.

In common usage, deposits rich in oil are known as oil fields, and deposits rich in
natural gas are called natural gas fields.

33
34
 The Petroleum Refinery
WHAT DOES A REFINERY DO?
MANUFACTURING STEP THAT CONVERTS CRUDE OIL (INPUT) INTO
FINISHED PRODUCT (OUTPUT). EXAMPLES OF FINISHED PRODUCT
MOTOR GASOLINE (MOGAS)
JET FUEL
DIESEL FUEL
LUBRICATING OILS
ASPHALT

CONSISTS OF EQUIPMENT GROUPED INTO PROCESSING BLOCKS

WITH SUPPORTING FACILITIES
PIPESTILLS ] EXAMPLES OF PROCESSING BLOCKS
CAT CRACKER ] (UNITS)
 The Petroleum Refinery
AMOUNTS OF EACH PRODUCT PRODUCED DEPEND ON;

PRODUCT DEMANDS AND PRICES

NATURE AND COST OF CRUDE OIL BEING RUN
PROCESSING COSTS
FACILITIES AVAILABLE TO THE REFINER

PRODUCT STORED TO HANDLE SEASONAL FLUCTUATIONS IN DEMAND

 The Petroleum Refinery
Types of Refineries

A small refinery : will take in 2000 to 10000 tons of crude oil/ day .
A large refinery : 20000 to 40000 tons/day and these are a few refineries larger than this up to 60000
tons/day.

Refineries vary in complexity ;i.e. in the variety of processes operated and of products that are sent
out.

Simple refinery : may make only gasoline, diesel fuel, and heavy fuel.
The crude oil is distilled into:
1) Gaseous hydrocarbons, which are burnt as refinery fuel
2) Light gasoline , which will need sweetening, a simple chemical treatment, and then use for
automotive use except for its low octane number.
3) Naphtha of very low octane number, perhaps 40 compared with a market of 90. It is catalytically
reformed, by which octane number of 90 to 95 can be obtained.

A simple refinery consist of a crude oil distilling unit, a gasoline sweetening unit and a catalytic
reformer. Refineries having just this usually small of 2000 to 4000 tons/day of crude oil.
Refining Processes
Crude Distillation
Crude oils are first desalted and then introduced with steam to an atmospheric
distillation column. The atmospheric residue is then introduced to a vacuum
distillation tower
Solvent Deasphalting
This is the only physical process where carbon is rejected from heavy petroleum
fraction such as vacuum residue. Propane in liquid form (at moderate pressure) is
usually used to dissolve the whole oil, leaving asphaltene to precipitate. The
deasphalted oil (DAO) has low sulphur and metal contents since these are removed
with asphaltene.

Solvent Extraction
In this process, lube oil stock is treated by a solvent, such as N-methyl pyrrolidone
(NMP), which can dissolve the aromatic components in one phase (extract) and the
rest of the oil in another phase (raffinate). The solvent is removed from both phases
and the raffinate is dewaxed.
Solvent Dewaxing
The raffinate is dissolved in a solvent (methyl ethyl ketone, MEK) and the solution is
gradually chilled, during which high molecular weight paraffin (wax) is crystallized, and
the remaining solution is filtered. The extracted and dewaxed resulting oil is called ‘‘lube
oil’’. In some modern refineries removal of aromatics and waxes is carried out by catalytic
processes in ‘‘all hydrogenation process’’.
Chemical Catalytic Conversion Processes
Catalytic Reforming
In this process a special catalyst (platinum metal supported on silica or silica base
alumina) is used to restructure naphtha fraction (C6–C10) into aromatics and
isoparaffins.
Hydrotreating
This is one of the major processes for the cleaning of petroleum fractions from
impurities such as sulphur, nitrogen, oxy-compounds, chlorocompounds, aromatics,
waxes and metals using hydrogen.
Catalytic Hydrocracking
For higher molecular weight fractions such as atmospheric residues (AR) and
vacuum gas oils (VGOs), cracking in the presence of hydrogen is required to get light products.
In this case a dual function catalyst is used. It is composed of a zeolite catalyst for the cracking
function and rare earth metals supported on alumina for the hydrogenation function. The main
products are kerosene, jet fuel, diesel and fuel oil.
Catalytic Cracking
Fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) is the main player for the production of gasoline. The
catalyst in this case is a zeolite base for the cracking function. The main feed to FCC is VGO and
the product is gasoline, but some gas oil and refinery gases are also
Produced.
Thermal Chemical Conversion Processes
These processes are considered as upgrading processes for vacuum residue.
Delayed Coking
This process is based on the thermal cracking of vacuum residue by carbon rejection
forming coke and lighter products such as gases, gasoline and gas oils. Three types of
coke can be produced: sponge, shot and needle. The vacuum residue is heated in a
furnace and flashed into large drums where coke is deposited on the walls of these
drums, and the rest of the products are separated by distillation.
Flexicoking
In this thermal process, most of the coke is gasified into fuel gas using steam and air.
The burning of coke by air will provide the heat required for thermal cracking. The
products are gases, gasoline and gas oils with very little coke.
Visbreaking
This is a mild thermal cracking process used to break the high viscosity and pour
points of vacuum residue to the level which can be used in further downstream
processes. In this case, the residue is either broken in the furnace coil (coil
visbreaking) or soaked in a reactor for a few minutes (soaker visbreaker). The
products are gases, gasoline, gas oil and the unconverted residue.
 The Petroleum Refinery
Alkylation unit : to synthesize very high octane components for gasoline out of by product gases from
processes (b) , (c) and the primary distillation of the crude oil.

Lubricating oil refining :special plant to remove resinous and solidifying materials from lubricating oil
stocks and achieve the finished product by blending.
Refinery Property Estimation

The following list summarizes the refinery process and product properties required
for process design calculations:

1. True boiling point curve (always given) of crude and intermediate/product streams
2. Volume (Mean) average boiling point (VABP)
3. Mean average boiling point (MEABP)
4. Weight average boiling point (WABP)
5. Molal average boiling point (MABP)
6. Characterization factor (K)
7. Vapor pressure (VP) at any temperature
8. Viscosity at any temperature
9. Average sulfur content (wt %)
10. Degree API
11. Enthalpy (Btu/lb)
12. ASTM conversion to TBP and vice‐versa
13. Viscosity of a mixture using viscosity index
14. Flash point of a mixture using flash point index
15. Pour point of a mixture using pour point index
16. Equilibrium flash vaporization curve
 Physical properties of feedstocks and products
Simulated Distillation by Gas Chromatography
The boiling point distribution of the whole crude oil can be determined by an injection
of the sample in a gas chromatograph which separates the hydrocarbons in boiling
point order. The retention time is related to then boiling point through a calibration
curve. The results of this test are comparable to the true boiling point tests. In
addition, the boiling point distribution of light and heavy petroleum cuts can also be
done by gas chromatography. One of the standards methods of measurements is
ASTM D5307.

API
API = (141.5/SG 15oF) – 131.5 The purpose of this equation was to extend the range
of the specific gravity scale. Crude oil SG changes, although small, may be
Important.
Crude Oils oAPI = 10 – 50
Higher oAPI, more paraffinic crude, higher yields of gasoline.
Lower oAPI, more aromatic crude, lower yields of gasoline.
Salt Content
Measured by ASTM – 3230 (lb NaCl/1000 bbl)
Desalting is necessary because NaCl content > 10 lbs/1000 bbl leads to corrosion
Metals
Measured by EPA Method 3040. These include Ni, V, Ag, Hg, Na, and Ca. Metals
can cause catalyst deactivation and corrosion.
Sediment and Water
Measured by ASTM D – 96 These inorganic particles can lead to operational
problems.
Acidity : Measured by ASTM – 664
Pour Point
Measured by ASTM D-97 – temperature at which oil ceases to flow. Diesel may
contain waxes, smaller than candle wax, which could solidify in cold weather.
Flash Point
Temperatures above which the oil will spontaneously combust. Fractions in vacuum
tower are the least combustible. They are the heaviest.
Vapor Pressure
Measured by ASTM D-323 Also know as Reid vapor pressure (RVP). True vapor
pressure is usually 5-9% > RVP
Carbon Residue
The solid residue (%wt) remaining after heating to coking temperatures (700-800oC)
ASTM D-524 Ramsbottom Carbon
ASTM D-189 Conradson Carbon
CCR incr. then Asphaltene incr.
 Base of crude oil

1. (Mallison classification according to residuum) a material left behind after

distillation of fractions.

Residue > 50% paraffins Paraffinc base

Residue < 20% paraffins Asphaltic base
Residue 20-50% paraffins Mixed base

2. The U .S. Bureau of Mines designated base of crude oil.

 Refinery Products
4. Characterization Factor

The most widely used index is characterization factor (Watson, Nelson and Murphy).
It was originally defined as:
In which:

TB is the average molal / Mean boiling point (R)

S is the specific gravity at 60 F
It has since related to viscosity, aniline, temperature, molecular weight, critical
temperature, percentage of hydrocarbon etc.
K ≥ 12.15 (Paraffinic Base)
K< 11.5 (Aromatic Base)
K between 11.5-12.15 (Napthenic Base)
5. Correlation Index (C .I)
Like (C.F) related to boiling point and gravity
C.I for Parafine =0 C.I for Benzene =100
C.I =0-15 Parafine C.I =15-50 either Naphtenes or mix (Parafine Naphtenes)
C.I = above 50 Aromatic
 Refinery Products
6. Viscosity Index: (V. I)

A series of numbers ranging from 0-100 which indicate the rate of change of
viscosity with temperature.
Paraffinic base V.I =100
Naphthenic base V.I = 40
Refinery Products
 The Petroleum Refinery
Refinery Products

Gas from petroleum is classified under several names

a) Natural gas : It is readily available in nature, in almost as a finished product. It contains mainly
methane It may be accompanied by other dry fractions like ethane and propane to a small extent. In
addition to these combustibles some inert like CO2 ,N2 , noble gases are also present. The proportion
of methane ranges from 85% to 98%.

b) Associted gas : This is obtained from oil reservoirs and this exists as a separate gas cap over liquid
phase. The proportion of CH4, C2H4 , C3H8 vary depending on reservoir conditions. When the gas phase
is taken out, it may still contain some liquid , hyrocarbons mainly of volatile range like butane and
pentane which when condensed are treated as (Natural Gasoline ).

c) Disolved gas : Gas may be present in liquid HC mainly in the dissolved state depending upon the
formation pressure. When the pressure dercreased, this dissolved gas comes out of the oil. This gas is
separated before transportation in pipe lines or tankers . The remaining is first to come out of the
distillation column because of higher temperature.
 The Petroleum Refinery
d) Refining off gas : In refinery , gas is formed in cracking and reforming operations due to the thermal
degradation of liquid hydrocarbons. During stabilization of wild gasoline or processed gasoline, the
gases are vented. This forms a major source of heat energy for refinery, as wall as feed stock for
petrochemicals. All the gases contain impurities like CO 2 ,N2 , mercaptans, H2S, water vapor,
suspended impurities. First three paraffins are gases at room temperature. The mixture of methane
and ethane is called dry gas , propane and butane mixture is called wet gas.

e) Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) : Propane is frequently used as LPG after being mixed with butane.
The most important property of this fuel is the vapor pressure. For factility leak detection, the gas is
mixed with small amount of odorous mercaptans.
 The Petroleum Refinery
Gasoline
Most refiners produce gasoline in two grades, regular and premium and in addition supply a low-lead
or non-lead gasoline to comply with antipollution requirements.

The principal difference between regular and premium fuels is the antiknock performance.

Gasoline is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons C 4-C12 having a boiling range from 100 to 400 oF as
determined by ASTM method. Components are blended to promote :

1) high antiknock property.

2) ease of starting.
3) quick warm-up.
4) low tendency to vapor lock.
5) low engine deposits.
Normal butane is blended into gasoline to give the desired vapor pressure which is a compromise
between high RVP to improve starting characteristics and a low RVP to prevent vapor lock and reduce
evaporation losses. As butane has a high blending octane number as much as vapor pressure
limitation permits.
The addition of 10% ethanol to gasoline increases the RVP of the blend by about 1 psi.
 The Petroleum Refinery
Reid Vapor Pressure
Reid vapor pressure (RVP) is a way to measure how quickly fuels evaporate; it's often used in determining
gasoline and other petroleum product blends. The higher a fuel's RVP, the more quickly it evaporates. The
more quickly a fuel evaporates, the more it contributes to the ozone layer. RVP represents the fuel's
evaporation at 100 degrees Fahrenheit (37.8 degrees Celsius), and is measured in pounds per square inch, or
PSIs. The property that RVP measures often is referred to as the gasoline's volatility. To obtain the RVP, a
chilled sample is placed in a special vapor chamber that is heated to 100 degrees Fahrenheit (37.8 degrees
Celsius). The reading records the observed constant pressure in the chamber. There are national industry
standards for the bath, the thermometer and the pressure monitoring device so that consistency can be
maintained among RVPs.

The RVP for gasoline should always be below 14.7 PSI, which is normal atmospheric pressure. If the RVP is
higher than 14.7 PSI, excess pressure will build up, and the fuel might boil and evaporate while in the car's
gas tank. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulates RVP for gasoline that you buy at retail gas
stations during the summer months to help reduce emissions [source: Environmental Protection Agency].
The summer generally includes the dates June 1 through September 15, except in certain areas with
extended summer seasons. The summer fuel volatility regulations exclude Alaska, Hawaii and U.S.
territories, but otherwise are outlined by state and county. During summer months, RVPs typically can go no
higher than 9.0 PSI and usually are between 7.0 and 7.8 PSI in metropolitan areas. The precise regulations
and amounts on county borders are managed by regional EPA offices.

Measuring vapor pressure of gasoline also reveals the fuel's tendency to vapor lock in high operating
temperatures or at high altitudes. Vapor pressure affects starting and warm-up of car and plane engines. For
crude oils, understanding vapor pressure can help oil companies more safely gather, refine, store and
transport their products .
 The Petroleum Refinery
Gasoline specifications
The most important properties are :

1) Boiling Range :
This governs ease of starting, rate of acceleration, loss by crankcase dillution. and tendency towards
vapor lock.

Engine warm-up time is affected by the % distilled at 158 oF and the 90% ASTM distillation
temperature.

Warm up is expressed in terms of the miles of operation required to develop full power without
excessive use of the choke.
 The Petroleum Refinery
Crankcase dilution is controlled by the 90% ASTM distillation temperature and is also a function of
outside temperature.

Tendency to vapor lock is directly proportional to the RVP of the gasoline.

RVP is approximately the vapor pressure of the gasoline at 100 oF in Lb/in2 absolute.

2) Antiknock Properties :
There are two types of octane numbers for gasoline engines : those determined by
- the motor method (MON)
- the research method (RON)

both methods use the same basic test engine but operate under different conditions.

The RON (ASTM D-908) represents the performance during low-speed driving when acceleration is
relatively frequent, and the MON (ASTM D-357) is a guide to engine performance and high speeds or
under heavy load conditions.

The difference between the RON & MON of gasoline is an indication of the change of performance
under both city and highway driving and is known as the "sensivity" of the fuel.
 The Petroleum Refinery
Obviously, the driver would like for the fuel to perform equally well both in the city and on the
highway, therefore low sensitivity fuels are better.

Since the posting of octane numbers on the service station pump has been required in the United
States, the posted octane number (PON) is the one most well-known by the typical driver. This is the
arithmetic average of the research and motor octane numbers [(RON + MON)/2].

In the mountain and high altitude regions, altitude affects several properties of gasoline, the most
important of which are losses by evaporation and octane requirement.

Octane number requirement is greatly affected by altitude and, for a constant spark advance, is about
three units lower for each 1000 ft (305 m) of elevation.

Octane requirements for the same model of engine will vary by 7 to 12 RON because of differences in
tune-up, engine deposits, and clearances.
 The Petroleum Refinery
Distillate Fuels
1)Jet Fuels: Commercial jet fuel is a material in the kerosene boiling range and must be clean burning.

One of the critical specification of jet fuels is its smoke point and this limits the % of cracked products high in
aromatic that can be incorporated. Specification limit the aromatic conc. to 20%. Hydrocracking saturates
the aromatics in the cracked products and raise the smoke point.
Smoke point is the maximum flame height in mm at which kerosene will burn without smoking. Generally
the more aromatic the fuel the smokier the flame. High smoke point indicate a fuel of low smoke
producing tendency.
C/H Ratio could also increase the smoking tendency, so hydro treating improves smoke point.

The freeze point specification is very low (-40 oF to -58 oF) max. and hydrocracking is also used to isomerizes
paraffin and lower the freeze point. In addition the other limiting specification is flash point (110 to 150 oF).

Naphtha jet fuel is produced for military and is a wide- boiling- range stock which extends through the
gasoline and kerosene boiling range.

2) Diesel Fuels: The major performance characteristics of diesel fuels, some what in the order of importance
are : (cleanliness, ignition quality, volatility, viscosity)

No.1 diesel fuel: is generally made from virgin stocks having cetane No. above 50 . It has a boiling range
from 360 to 600 oF (250 to 320 oC) and is used in high- speed engines in trucks and buses, it is called some
time super diesel.
No.2 diesel fuel : is similar to No.2 fuel oil, and has a wider boiling range (350 to 650 oF) than No.1. It is
usually contains some cracked stocks and may be blended from naphtha, kerosene , and light cracked cycle
oils.
 The Petroleum Refinery
Limiting specifications are:

Flash point ( 120 to 125 oF min.)

Dist. Range
Cetane No. (52 min.)
Pour point (-10 to +10 max.)

The ignition properties of diesel fuels are expressed in terms of cetane number which expressed the
volume % of cetane (C16H34 , high ignition quality) in a mixture with alpha-methl-naphthalene (C11H10 ,
low ignition quality).

3) Heating Oils

No.1 fuel oil is very similar to kerosene but has a higher pour point and end point.

Limiting specification are

Distillation, pour point, flash point and sulfur content.
No.2 fuel oil is very similar to No. 2 diesel fuel, contains cracked stock, and is blended from naphtha,
kerosene, diesel and cracked- cycle oils.
 The Petroleum Refinery
Limiting specification are:

Sulfur content ( 0.25 to 0.5% max. )

Pour point ( -10 to +5 max. )
Distillation
Flash point ( 120 oF min.)
Aviation Turbine Fuels , ( ATF) , Jet Fuels
Modern jet engines use fuel similar to kerosene. It is a most flexible fuel in its boiling range ( upto 300
o
C)

Important properties
Pour point not higher than -30 oC
Smoke point high
Volatility
Water content
 The Petroleum Refinery
Naphtha:

These fractions are highly volatile and fall in the boiling range of motor spirits.

These are mostly used as solvents in paints, perfumery and other industries. Solvent grades are
produced by distilling wide cut naphthas into small boiling range cuts.

Naphthas are not suitable for combustion because of the rapid flame propagation, resulting in
explosions.

Kerosene
Approx. boiling point range 150-250 oC
Low viscosity
Good degree of refinement to be fairly stable.
Light in colour
Free from smoke
Used as illuminating oil and converted into aviation fuels.
 The Petroleum Refinery
Diesel Fuels

Boiling point range 250-320 oC

Mainly two types : classification of diesel oils is done according to speed and load of the engine as
1) high speed diesels
2) low speed diesels

Lube Oils

The principal source of lubricating oil is the fraction that is left after components, namely gasoline,
kerosene, diesel oil during crude distillation.
Boiling point >350 oC obtained from vacuum distillation units.

Residuum after precipitation of asphaltenes are known as bright stocks and form good source for lube
oils.
62
63