Introduction

Textbook:
Computer System Architecture 3rd Edition, M. Morris Mano,
Prentice Hall
• Digital Logic
• Digital Components
• Data Representation
• Register Transfer and Microoperations
• Basic Computer Organization and Design
• Programming the Basic Computer
• Microprogrammed Control
• Central Processing Unit
• Input-Output Organization
• Memory Organization
 What Is Computer Architecture?

Computer Architecture =
Instruction Set Architecture + Machine
Organization

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 Instruction Set Architecture

• ISA = attributes of the computing system as seen by the

programmer
• Organization of programmable storage
• Data types & data structures
• Instruction set
• Instruction formats
• Modes of addressing
• Exception handling

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 Machine Organization

• Capabilities & performance characteristics of

principal functional units (e.g., registers, ALU,
shifters, logic units)
• Ways in which these components are
interconnected
• Information flow between components
• Logic and means by which such information flow
is controlled
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 What is “Computer”

• A computer is a machine that performs

computational tasks using stored instructions.
 A computer consist of … ?
1) Central processing unit (CPU);

2) Random access memory (RAM);

3) Input-output processors (IOP).

• These devices communicate to each other

through a set of electric wires called bus.
 CPU consists of

• > Arithmetic logic unit (ALU): Executes arithmetic (addition,

multiplication,...) and logical (AND, OR,...) operations.

• > Control unit: Generates a sequence of control signals (cf.

traffic signal) telling the ALU how to operate; reads and
executes microprograms stored in a read only memory
(ROM).

• > Registers: Fast, small memory for temporary storage

during mathematical operations.
 RAM stores

• > Program: A sequence of instructions to be

executed by the computer

•   Data
 History of Computers

• The world’s first general-

purpose electronic computer was
ENIAC built by Eckert and
Mauchly at the University of
Pennsylvania
during World War II. However,
rewiring this computer to
perform a new task requires
days of work by a number of
operators.
ENIAC built by Eckert and Mauchly at
the University of Pennsylvania
during World War II

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The first practical stored-program computer

The first practical stored-

program computer was
EDSAC built in 1949 by
Wilkes of Cambridge
University.
Now the program in
addition to data is stored in
the memory so that different
problems can be solved
without hardware rewiring
anymore.

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 UNIVAC I

Eckert and Mauchly later went to

business, and built the first
commercial computer in the United
States, UNIVAC I, in 1951.

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 IBM System/360 series
A commercial breakthrough occurred in 1964 when IBM introduced System/360 series.
The series include various models ranging from $225K to $1.9M with varied
performance but with a single instruction set architecture.

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 Supercomputers
The era of vector supercomputers started
in 1976 when Seymour Cray built Cray-1
Vector processing is a type of parallelism
which speeds up computation. We will learn
related concept of pipelining in this course.

In late 80’s, massively parallel computers

such as the CM-2 became the central
technology for supercomputing.

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 Microprocessors

Another important development

is the invention of the
microprocessor--a computer on
a single semiconductor chip.

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Microprocessor

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 personal computers

Microprocessors enabled personal computers such as the Apple II (below) built

in 1977 by Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak.

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 Moore’s Law

In 1965, Gordon Moore predicted that the number of

transistors per integrated circuit would double every
18 months. This prediction, called "Moore's Law,"
continues to hold true today. The table below shows
the number of transistors in several microprocessors
introduced since 1971.

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 Moore’s Law Still Holds
10 11
10 10 2G 4G
512M 1G
109 Memory 256M
Transistors Per Die

Microprocessor 128M Itanium®

108 64M Pentium® 4
16M
107 4M Pentium III
®

1M Pentium® II
10 6
256K Pentium®
i486™
64K
10 5
i386™
4K 16K 80286
104 8080
1K
8086
103 4004
102
101
100
’60 ’65 ’70 ’75 ’80 ’85 ’90 ’95 ’00 ’05 ’10

Source: Intel 19
 Digital Systems - Analog vs. Digital

0000000000000000
0111111100000111
1000100011111000
1011011010001011

(a) Analog form (b) Sampled analog form (c) Digital form

Magnetic tape contaning analog and digital forms of a signal.

•Analog vs. Digital: Continuous vs. discrete.

•Results--- Digital computers replaced analog computers

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 Digital Advantages

• More flexible (easy to program), faster, more

precise.
• Storage devices are easier to implement.
• Built-in error detection and correction.
• Easier to minimize.
 Binary System
• Digital computers use the binary number system.
Binary number system: Has two digits: 0 and 1.

• Reasons to choose the binary system:

1. Simplicity: A computer is an “idiot” which blindly follows
mechanical rules; we cannot assume any prior knowledge on
his part.

2. Universality: In addition to arithmetic operations, a

computer which speaks a binary language can perform any
tasks that are expressed using the formal logic.
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 Example
Adding two numbers
High-level language (C)
c = a + b;

Assembly language
LDA 004
ADD 005
STA 006

Machine language
0010 0000 0000 0100
0001 0000 0000 0101
0011 0000 0000 0110
 Boolean algebra
Since the need is great for manipulating the relations between
the functions that contain the binary or logic expression,
Boolean algebra has been introduced.

The Boolean algebra is named in honor of a pioneering

scientist named: George Boole.

A Boolean value is a 1 or a 0.
A Boolean variable takes on Boolean values.
A Boolean function takes in Boolean variables and
produces Boolean values.

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 Boolean or logic operations

1. OR. This is written + (e.g. X+Y where X and Y are Boolean

variables) and often called the logical sum. OR is called binary
operator.
2. AND. Called logical product and written as a centered dot (like
product in regular algebra). AND is called binary operator.
3. NOT. This is a unary operator (One argument), NOT(A) is written
A with a bar over it or use ' instead of a bar as it is easier to type.
4. Exclusive OR (XOR).
Written as + with circle around it . It is also a binary operator.
True if exactly one input is true (i.e. true XOR true = false).

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TRUTH TABLES

INPU AND INPU OR INPU XOR

A.B A+B AB

___
A B A B A B
A.B
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1

1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1

1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0

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 Important identities of Boolean ALGEBRA.

Identity:
+ for OR
•A+0 = 0+A = A
. for AND
•A.1 = 1.A = A

Inverse:
•A+A' = A'+A = 1
•A.A' = A'.A = 0
•(using ' for not)

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 Important identities of Boolean
ALGEBRA
• Associative:
• A+(B+C) = (A+B)+C
• A.(B.C)=(A.B).C

• Due to associative law we can write A.B.C since

either order of evaluation gives the same answer.

• Often elide the . so the product associative law is

A(BC)=(AB)C
 Important identities of Boolean
ALGEBRA
• Distributive:
• A(B+C)=AB+AC Similar to math.
• A+(BC)=(A+B)(A+C) Contradictory to math.

• How does one prove these laws??

• Simple (but long) write the Truth Tables for each and see
that the outputs are the same.
Important identities of Boolean ALGEBRA.

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 An overview of the computer's functions and
interconnections
An instruction cycle consists of receiving an instruction, receiving 0 or more
subsequent operands, storing 0 or more following operands, followed by an
interrupt control.

The basic elements of the computer system (processor, main memory and
input/output) must have connections so that they can transmit data and control
signals between each other. The most common method of creating these
connections is the shared common route system with multiple lines (bus
system). In today's systems, there is a hierarchical order between common
paths in order to increase performance.

The issues to be considered in relation to a common path system are decision

making mechanism, timing and common path width. The decision-making
mechanism is about whether the necessary permission to send signals on the
common road lines will be given from the center or from other units. Timing
concerns whether signals on the common path are made asynchronous with a
central clock or based on the most recently performed transmission. Common
bus width is related to the number of lines (bits) of address and data common
busses.
The figure shows the main
components of the
computer and their
connections. The CPU
exchanges data with the
memory. There are 2
registers for this.
MAR(Memory address
register) stores the address
of the memory region to be
read and written to in
memory. MBR (memory
buffer register) stores data
to be written to memory or
data to be read from
memory. Similarly, the I/O
address register points to a
particular input or output
unit. The I/O buffer register
is used for data exchange
between the CPU and the
I/O unit.
The task of a computer is to run the program, which is stored in
memory as a series of instructions. Executing a command, in its
simplest form, consists of these two steps. Retrieving the command
from memory and executing it afterwards. By executing all commands
in this way, the program is run.