98 3 Energy, Power, Convolution, and Systems

f ½n = . . . þ aδ½n - 2 þ bδ½n - 1 þ cδ½n þ dδ½n þ 1 þ eδ½n þ 2 þ . . .

which can also be written using the summation symbol as

X
1
f ½ n = f ½kδ½n - k ð3:22Þ
k= -1

from which it is seen that any digital signal can be written as the convolution of itself
and the digital impulse signal, that is:

f ½n = f ½n  δ½n

Some properties of the digital impulse signal are given as

f ½nδ½n - n0  = f ½n0 δ½n - n0 

f ½n  δ½n - n0  = f ½n - n0 
X
f ½nδ½n - n0  = f ½n0 

Example 3.17 δ[n - 1]  δ[n - 2] = ?

Solution 3.17 Using the propertyf [n]  δ[n - n0] = f [n - n0] for the given
convolution, we get

δ½n - 1  δ½n - 2 = δ½n - 1 - 2

= δ ½ n - 3

3.3 Systems and Their Features

A system can be defined as an electronic circuit or any organization that receives a

signal as input and produces another signal as output.
The system produces a new signal by processing the signal it receives as input and
presents the processed signal as output. Inspecting the input and output of a system,
we can get an idea about the properties of the system.
For example, a circuit containing a power supply, resistor, and capacitor has a
memory, since a capacitor has energy storage property. But if our circuit consists of
only the power supply and the resistor, there is no memory property. More complex
systems can be obtained by connecting systems in series or parallel. A system can be
analog or digital. In Fig. 3.13, systems are shown using block diagrams. A system
can have the properties: causality, memory, linearity, time invariance, stability, and
invertibility.
3.3 Systems and Their Features 99

Fig. 3.13 Block diagram Continuous Time

representation of systems x(t) y(t)
System

x[n] Digital System y [n]

Fig. 3.14 A digital system

x [n] H{.} y [n]

3.3.1 Mathematical Expressions of the Systems

The system takes the signal as input. Let us represent this signal as x(t). It produces
output by processing the input signal. Let us represent the output signal as y(t). The
relationship between output and input can be written as

y ð t Þ = H fx ð t Þ g ð3:23Þ

where H{} represents the system operator and it is used to indicate that the system
processes the input data.
If we have more than one system, we can use different letters to denote these
systems, like H1{}, H2{}.

3.3.2 Causality

For a system to be causal, its output at any time must depend on current or past input
data. If the output of the system depends on future input values, then the system is
not causal.
Example 3.18 The relationship between the output and input of a system shown in
Fig. 3.14 is given as y[n] = x[n] + 0.5x[n - 2] + x2[n - 3]. Determine whether the
system is causal or not.
Solution 3.18 The relationship between the output and the input of the system is
y[n] = x[n] + 0.5x[n - 2] + x2[n - 3] from which it is seen that the output of
the system y[n] depends on the present input x[n] and the past inputs x[n - 2] and
x[n - 3].
y[n] does not depend on any future input. The system, then, has causal property,
or we can say that the system is causal.
100 3 Energy, Power, Convolution, and Systems

Example 3.19 The relationship between the output and input of a system is given as
y(t) = x(t + 0.5) + x(t - 2.3) - x3(t - 3). Determine whether the system is causal
or not.
Solution 3.19 The system output y(t) depends on the future time input x(t + 0.5).
For this reason, the system is not causal, or we say that the system has no causality
property. Systems without causality property can exist mathematically, but practi-
cally they cannot be constructed. Because non-causal systems need input data from
the future to produce the output in the present, we cannot know the future input.
Especially real-time systems must have causality property. When researchers
design systems, such as equalizers, they first design them mathematically. Then,
they try to make the system causal. This is necessary to get practical systems;
otherwise, the designed systems will remain only theoretical and have no practical
value.

3.3.3 Memory

If the output of a system depends only on the current input, then the system has no
memory.
If the output of the system depends on past or future input data, then the system
has memory, or the system has memory property.
Example 3.20 The relationship between the output and the input of a system is
given by y[n] = x[n] + x3[n]. Determine whether the system has memory or not.
Solution 3.20 Since the output of the system y[n] at time n is only a function of the
current input data x[n], the system has no memory.
Example 3.21 The relationship between the output and the input of a system is
given by y(t) = x(t - 1) + x2(t). Determine whether the system has memory or not.
Solution 3.21 Since the output of the system y(t) at the time instant t depends on
past input x(t - 1), the system has memory.

3.3.4 Stability

Systems can have bounded-input, bounded-output stability property. If we get

bounded output when we give bounded-input data to a system, then the system is
stable. The system on the other hand is unstable if for the bounded input the output is
unbounded. Let us give two examples to understand the subject. Consider an iron
jerry can and have two small holes on the faces of this jerry can. Assume that the
jerry can is filled with gasoline; if we throw a burning match into one of the holes and
3.3 Systems and Their Features 101

Fig. 3.15 Illustration of

stable and unstable systems

Unstable System Stable System

close it, a high amount of pressure, heat, and light will appear at the other hole; and
then we have an unstable system.
On the other hand, consider a circuit consisting of only a voltage source and a
resistor connected in parallel. The more you increase the source voltage, the more
voltage will be obtained across the resistor, so our system is a stable system. The
magnitude of the voltage across the resistor will be proportional to the magnitude of
the source voltage.
If the input and output of a system are denoted by x(t) and y(t), then for a
bounded-input and bounded-output stable system, for

j xð t Þ j  M x < 1

we have

j yð t Þ j  M y < 1

where Mx and My are real numbers. Unless otherwise indicated we will use the word
“stability” for “bounded-input, bounded-output stability,” and if it is mentioned that
a system is stable, it means that we indicate a bounded-input, bounded-output stable
system. In Fig. 3.15, graphical illustration of stable and unstable systems is available.
As can be interpreted from Fig. 3.15, an unstable system produces an immense
amount of output for very little input, while a stable system produces a small amount
of output for small input.
Example 3.22 The relationship between the output and the input of a system is
given by

X
n
y½n = x½k 
k= -1

Determine whether the system is stable or not.

Solution 3.22 To determine whether the system is stable or not, let us consider
bounded-input data to the system, and see if the output of the system is bounded as
well. For the system input, let us use x[n] = u[n] which is unit step function that
102 3 Energy, Power, Convolution, and Systems

satisfies |x[n]| = |u[n]| < Mx where Mx is a positive real number and it can be chosen
as Mx = 2.
Now let us calculate the output of the system and see if the output is bounded. For
the system input x[n] = u[n], the system output can be calculated as

X
n X
n
y½n = u ½ k  → y ½ n = 1 → y½n = n þ 1, n>0
k= -1 k=0

For the system output y[n] = n + 1, it is not possible to find a real number My such
that |y[n]| < My. Since n goes to infinity, the output y[n] = n + 1 also goes to infinity,
and we cannot find an upper bound for the output of the system.
Thus, the system is an unstable system; it does not have stability property.
Exercise The relationship between the output and the input of a system is given as

yð t Þ = x 2 ð t Þ þ x ðt - 3Þ

Determine whether the system is stable or not.

3.3.5 Invertibility

If the input of a system can be obtained from its output, then the system is invertible.
In other words, a system is invertible if it is possible to have another system from
which the input of the system can be obtained using its output. Consider a system
where the relationship between the output and the input of the system is given by y
[n] = x[n - 1], and let us denote this system by H1.
For a second system, the relationship between the output and the input of the
system is given by k[n] = m[n + 1], and let us denote this system by H2. If y[n] is
taken as input by H2, then the output of H2 can be calculated as

k ½n = m½n þ 1
= y½n þ 1
= x½n - 1 þ 1
= x½n

which is nothing but the input of H1. Hence, H2 is the inverse of H1.
3.3 Systems and Their Features 103

3.3.6 Linearity

Linearity is another property that a system can have. Let x1 and x2 be two different
inputs of the system. Let the output of the system for these inputs be y1 and y2. For
the system to be a linear system, for the input k1x1 + k2x2 k1, k2 2 R, the output must
be k1y1 + k2y2.
In order to understand whether a system is linear or not, we only need to look at
the equation between its output and input. If the output of the system includes second
or higher powers of the input, then the system is not linear.
Example 3.23 Consider a system with an input-output relationship

y ½ n = x 2 ½ n - 1

determines whether the system is linear or not.

Solution 3.23 Since the output of the system depends on the square of the input
signal, we can directly say that the system is not linear.
Applying the definition of linearity, let us see mathematically that it is not linear.
For inputs x1[n] and x2[n], the outputs are y1 ½n = x21 ½n - 1 and y2 ½n = x22 ½n - 1.
If the system output for the input x1[n] + x2[n], k1 = k2 = 1 equals y1[n] + y2[n], then
the system is linear. For input x1[n] + x2[n], the output is (x1[n - 1] + x2[n - 1])2
which is not equal to y1[n] + y2[n]. Hence, the system is not linear.
Example 3.24 The relationship between input and output of a system is given as
y(t) = x(t)x(t - 1). Determine whether the system is linear or not.
Solution 3.24 For input x1(t), the output is y1(t) = x1(t)x1(t - 1). For input x2(t), the
output is y2(t) = x2(t)x2(t - 1). For input x1(t) + x2(t), the output is

yðt Þ = ðx1 ðt Þ þ x2 ðt ÞÞðx1 ðt - 1Þ þ x2 ðt - 1ÞÞ

= x1 ðt Þx1 ðt - 1Þ þ x1 ðt Þx2 ðt - 1Þ þ x2 ðt Þx1 ðt - 1Þ þ x2 ðt Þx2 ðt - 1Þ

which is not equal to y1(t) + y2(t), i.e., y(t) ≠ y1(t) + y2(t). Hence, the system is not
linear.
Exercise Determine whether the system defined by y[n] = x[n] + 2x[n - 1] is linear
or not.

3.3.7 Time Invariance

For a system to be time-invariant, the time-shifted input must produce time-shifted

output. The shift amount at the input and output must be the same.
104 3 Energy, Power, Convolution, and Systems

That is, for the input signal x(t) if the output is y(t), then for a time-invariant
system, for the input x(t - t0), the output is y(t - t0), or for the input x(t + t0), the
output is y(t + t0).
Example 3.25 The relationship between input and output of a system is given by

xð t Þ
yð t Þ =
Rðt Þ

Determine whether the system is time-invariant or not.

Solution 3.25 For input x(t), the output is

xð t Þ
R ðt Þ

For input x(t - t0), the output is

xð t - t 0 Þ
R ðt Þ

For the system to be time-invariant, for the input x(t - t0), the output must be

xðt - t 0 Þ
yð t - t 0 Þ =
Rðt - t 0 Þ

However,

xðt - t 0 Þ xðt - t 0 Þ
≠ yðt - t 0 Þ =
R ðt Þ Rðt - t 0 Þ

Hence, the system is time-dependent, and it is not time-invariant.

Example 3.26 Show that the system defined by

Zt
yð t Þ = xðτÞdτ
-1

is time-invariant.
Solution 3.26 For input x(t - t0), the output is
3.3 Systems and Their Features 105

Zt
y1 ð t Þ = xðτ - t 0 Þdτ
-1

For the time-invariant system, we have

y1 ð t Þ = y ðt - t 0 Þ

Making parameter change in

Z
t - t0

yð t - t 0 Þ = xðτÞdτ
-1

such that τ′ = τ + t0 we get

Zt
yð t - t 0 Þ = xðτ0 Þdτ0
-1

from which we can write that

yðt - t 0 Þ = y1 ð t Þ

Hence, the system is time-invariant.

Exercise Consider a system with an input-output relationship y(t) = x(2t). Deter-
mine whether the system is time-invariant or not.
Exercise Consider a system with an input-output relationship y(t) = x(t) + u(t).
Determine whether the system is time-invariant or not.
Exercise Consider a system with an input-output relationship y(t) = x(t -
1) + u(2t). Determine whether the system is time-invariant or not.

3.3.8 Time Domain Representations of Linear

and Time-Invariant Systems

Any digital signal x[n] can be written as the sum of the shifted impulse functions.
The digital signal in Fig. 3.16 can be written as

x½n = - δ½n þ 2 þ 2δ½n þ 1 þ δ½n - 2 - 2δ½n - 4

In general the digital signal x[n] can be written as