EE 220 : Signals and Systems

Department of Electronics and Electrical Engineerng

Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati
Monsoon 2022

Topic 3 : Introduction to systems

Instruction and notes by : Manish

1 Signals viewed as interconnections of operations

A system may be viewed as an interconnections of successive operations that transforms an
input signal to an output signal. Let us say that a system operation is denoted by an operator
H. So for a continuous time input x(t) we can write the output signal as:
y(t) = H{x(t)} (1)
Similarly for the discrete time case, we can write
y[n] = H{x[n]} (2)
Let us see what it means with an example:
Example: Consider a DT system whose output is the mean of three most recent values of
the inputs; given as
1
y[n] = (x[n] + x[n − 1] + x[n − 2]) (3)
3
What would be the operator H of this system?
Solution: We can see that we need two shift operations in order to achieve x[n-1] and
x[n-2]; which can be done by right shifting the present input x[n] by 1 and 2 units respectively.
Let’s say that operator S k denotes the shift by k units: Thus, the system operator H can
be defined as:
1 1
H = (S 0 + S 1 + S 2 ) = (1 + S + S 2 ) (4)
3 3

2 Properties of systems
Let us see some of the most basic properties of systems:

2.1 Linearity
A system is said to have a linear relationship between the input and the output, if it satisfies
two following conditions:

Superposition
Let us assume that we have two different inputs x1 (t) and x2 (t) and the corresponding outputs
are y1 (t) and y2 (t). Then, for the system to be linear, the combined output x1 (t) + x2 (t) should
produce the corresponding output as y1 (t) + y2 (t).
This is the principle of superposition in its simlest form.

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Homogeneity
Now, let’s say that an input x(t) to a system that is initially at rest gives an output y(t). Now
if we provide a different input ax(t); the output should come as ay(t).
This is called principle of homogeneity.

A system needs to satisfy both the above conditions in order to be linear.

Example: Consider a DT system which has following input-output relation

y[n] = nx[n]
Is this a linear system?
Answer: Yes, it is linear.
Example: Consider a CT system which has following input-output relation
y(t) = x(t)x(t − 1)
Is this a linear system?
Answer: No, it is non-linear.

2.2 Stability
A system is said to be bounded-input bounded-output (BIBO) stable, iff every bounded input
provides a bounded output. (In here, bounded means finite; i.e. < ∞)
So, we can express it mathematically as:
A system is BIBO stable if the output signal y(t) is bounded i.e,
|y(t)| ≤ My < ∞ (5)
whenever the input signal x(t) is also bounded i.e.,

|x(t)| ≤ Mx < ∞ (6)

From an engineering perspectives; it is important that a system remains stable under all
operating conditions.
One famous example of an unstable system is the Tacoma Narrows suspension bridge that
collapsed in Nov 1940 due to wind induced vibrations.
Example: Consider a DT system which has following input-output relation

y[n] = rn x[n]; r > 1

Is this a stable system?
Answer: Even if the input x[n] is a bounded signal; rn may result in unbounded term since
r > 1; hence it is an unstable system. To make the system stable, we need to make the term
rn finite, which would require imposing some conditions.
Example: Consider a DT system whose output is the mean of three most recent values of
the inputs; i.e.
1
y[n] = (x[n] + x[n − 1] + x[n − 2])
3
Is this a BIBO stable system?
Answer: Let us assume that x[n] is bounded. We could easily check that y[n] will also be
bounded for each bounded input. Hence, it is a stable system.

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2.3 Memory
A system is said to be memoryless if its output signal depends only on the present value of the
input signal.
For example, a resistor is memoryless since the current flowing through the resistor depend
only on the present applied voltage
v(t)
i(t) =
R
Hence a resistor has no memory.
On the other hand, the current flowing through an inductor is defined as

1 t
Z
i(t) = v(τ )dτ (7)
L −∞

Clearly, here the output depends on the past inputs too. Thus, it must have a memory.

Therefore, a system is said to have a memory if its output depends on the past or future
values of the input signal.
Example: Consider a DT system whose output is the mean of three most recent values of
the inputs; i.e.
1
y[n] = (x[n] + x[n − 1] + x[n − 2])
3
Is this a memory system?
Answer: Yes, it is. Output depends on the past inputs. The memory extends to two time
units in the past.
Example: Consider a DT system which has following input-output relation

y[n] = x2 [n]
Is this a memory system?
Answer: No. It’s a mmory less system. Output depends only on the present input.

2.4 Causality
A system is said to be causal if its output signal depends only on the present or past value
of the input signal.
The system is non-causal if output depends on the future values of the input signals.
Example: Consider a DT system whose output is the mean of three most recent values of
the inputs; i.e.
1
y[n] = (x[n] + x[n − 1] + x[n − 2])
3
Is this a causal system?
Answer: Yes. Output depends on present and past values only.
Example:
1
y[n] = (x[n] + x[n + 1] + x[n + 2])
3
Is this a causal system?
Answer: No. Output depends on future values.

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 Clearly, if we want a system to operate in real time, we can not depend on any future
values. Thus, causality is required to make a system capable of real-time operation. In real-life
scenario, almost all physically realizable systems are causal w.r.t. independent variable time.
A memoryless system is always causal. The reverse may not be true.

Another definition of a causal system is that its impulse response should be zero for all
negative time points; i.e.
h(t) = 0 ∀ t<0
Homework: Do a thought experiment and verify why the above equation is true!
Example: Given a system with the impulse response:

h[n] = n2

Is this a causal system?

Answer: No. h[n] is not zero for n < 0.

Remark: A memoryless system is always causal (as it doesn’t depend on future input
values), but a causal system doesn’t need to be memoryless (because it may depend on past
input or output values)

2.5 Invertivility
The inverse (if it exists) of a system H is another system H −1 such that, for every function x

H −1 Hx = x (8)

(i.e., the system formed by the cascaded interconnection of H followed by H 1 is a system whose
input and output are equal).
A system is said to be invertible if it has a corresponding inverse system (i.e., its inverse
exists). In practical terms, invertible systems are “nice” in the sense that their effects can be
undone.
An invertible system will always produce distinct outputs from any two distinct inputs. To
show that a system is not invertible, we simply find two distinct inputs that result in identical
outputs. To show that a system is invertible, we simply find the inverse system.
Some books also write invertibility as

H −1 H = I

where I is the identity operator.

Example: An inductor is defined as
Z t
1
i(t) = v(τ )dτ (9)
L −∞

Find the operation representing its inverse system.

Answer: v(t) = L · d(i(t))/dt

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2.6 Time invariance
A system is said to be time invariant if a time shift (i.e., advance or delay) in the input always
results in an identical time shift in the output. We can also express it as:
Let’s say a system H has an input input x1 (t) with the corresponding output y1 (t). For
a time invariant system, if we change the input to x1 (t − t0 ), the corresponding output will
become y1 (t − t0 ).
Example: Consider a DT system which has following input-output relation

y[n] = rn x[n]
Is this a time-invariant system?
Answer: No. If we shift input to 2 units i.e. x[n-2], the output should become rn x[n − 2]
for it to be time invariant. But it is actually becoming rn−2 x[n − 2].

In simple terms, a time invariant system is a system whose behavior does not change with
respect to time. A system that is not time invariant is said to be time varying. Time-invariant
systems are much easier to design and analyze, since their behavior does not change with
respect to time.

3 Practice Questions
1. A function g(t) = f (t)u(t) is shifted to right side by t0 . The shifted function can be
expressed as .......

2. A system is described by the relation y(t) = tx(t). Check the linearity and time variability
of this system.

3. which one of the following system is a causal system

• y(t) = sin[u(t + 3)]

• y(t) = 5u(t) + 3u(t − 1)
• y(t) = 5u(t) + 3u(t + 1)
• y(t) = sin[u(t − 3) + sin[u(t + 3)]

4. For each system below, determine whether they are memoryless, stable, causal, linear,
and time invariant?

a. y(t) = cosx(t)
b. y[n] = 2x[n]u[n]
c. y[n] = log10 (|x[n]|)
R t/2
d. y(t) = −∞ x(τ )dτ
e. y[n] = nk=−∞ x[k + 2]
P

d
f. y(t) = dt
x(t)
g. y[n] = cos(2πx[n + 1]) + x[n]
h. y(t) = d
dt
{e−t x(t)}
i. y(t) = x(2 − t)

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 P∞
j. y[n] = x[n] k=−∞ δ[n − 2k]
k. y[n] = 2x[2n ]
l. y(t) = x(t/2)

3.1 Solutions
[1].

g(t − t0 ) = f (t − t0 )u(t − t0 )

[2].

y1 (t) = tx1 (t)

y2 (t) = tx2 (t)
summing above two
y1 (t) + y2 (t) = t(x1 (t) + x2 (t))
For input ax3 (t)
y3 (t) = tax3 (t)
Thus, a linear system.

y(t) = tx(t)
It’s delayed form = tx(t − t0 )
but replacing (t − t0 ) in the system equation:
y(t − t0 ) = (t − t0 )x(t − t0 )

which is contradictory to it’s delayed form. Hence, it’s not a time invariant system.

[3]. y(t) = 5u(t) + 3u(t − 1). Rest all depend on future inputs.

[5.]
Answer: In the order: Memoryless, stable, causal, linear, time invariant
a. YYYNY
b. YYYYN
c. YNYNY
d. NNNYN
e. NNNYY
f. NNYYY
g. NYNNY
h. NNYYN
i. NYNYN
j. YYYYN
k. NYNYN
l. NYNYN
(b) Hint: Time variant because: 2x[n − a]u[n] ̸= 2x[n − a]u[n − a]
(c) Hint: Unstable because: limn→0 log10 | sin n| → ∞
(d) Hint: Unstable: Check when x(t) = 1 for all t. Not causal: check for -ve time instants.

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 (f) Hint: To check memory and causality: use the definition

′ x(t) − x(t − h)
x (t) = lim
h→0 h
This definition is sufficient to compute the derivative. Hence, it’s a causal system. We do not
′
need to use the other definition x (t) = limh→0 x(t+h)−x(t)
h
provided x(t) is differentiable.
To check stability : Try x(t) = u(t). It will result in bounded input, unbounded output.
(h) Hint: Not memoryless because: derivative requires memory. Not stable because e−t term
can go to ∞. Causal because derivative is causal and no future inputs present in the equation.
Not time invariant because e−t x(t − a) ̸= e−(t−a) x(t − a). Linear because [ax1 (t) + ax2 (t)] input
will result in the output: dtd {e−t a[x1 (t) + x2 (t)]}.
(i) Hint: Noncausal for t < 1. Not time invariant because: x(2 − t − a) ̸= x(2 − (t − a)).
(j) Hint: If we observe closely, we can see that:
(
x[n] ∀ n = even
y[n] =
0 ∀ n = odd
Thus, it’s going to be memoryless, stable, causal, linear system.
It’s not time invariant because:
∞
X ∞
X
x[n − a] δ[n − 2k] ̸= x[n − a] δ[n − 2k − a]
k=−∞ k=−∞

(k) Hint: Put n = 2 : y(2) depends on x(4). Hence not causal, not memoryless. Not time
invariant because: 2x[2n − a] ̸= 2x[2n−a ]. Stable because if x(n) is bounded for all n, then x[2n ]
will also be bounded.

General hint: If t appears anywhere other than in x(t), It’s probably going to be not
time-invariant.

Reference material
1. Textbook: Signals and Systems by Simon Haykin
2. Lecture notes are inspired from the course materials of JHU 520.214; MIT 6.003; Purdue
ECE-301; UVic ECE-260; and Imperial College E2.5

[Please report any typos in the notes by sending an email to the instructor.]