General Principles

&
Methods of
Teaching
with
Prof. Jessica V.
Pagallaman
Top 6, LET Sept. 2021
 Competencies

2. Apply appropriate principles

1. Employ activities, teaching
in the preparation and
methods, instructional materials
utilization of the conventional
& technology, classroom
and non-conventional
management techniques
technology tools as well as
appropriate for chosen subject
traditional and alternative
areas
teaching strategies
Instructional Planning

Direct/ Expository and Exploratory

Methods of Teaching

Techniques of teaching, discussion

procedures, art of questioning, classroom
management, selection and utilization of
materials.
 Metacognitive Process

Build in

Break it apart

Understand it

Build on it
Learning to Teach
• Teaching- refers to the management of the
teaching learning situations.
• To become an expert teacher is a complex,
multi-faceted process that continuously occur
throughout the individual’s professional
lifetime.
Different Kinds of knowledge
required of a teacher

Content knowledge-
Pedagogical knowledge-
understanding of content
research-based Strategies- research-
and the ability to
connections between based plans for actions
translate into meaningful
teaching and learning
form for the students
When is teaching
considered good?
 Principles of Good / Successful Teaching
(John Dewey)
the learner is made
the child is made the
conscious of the it provides learning
center of the it is well-planned;
goals or aims to be experiences;
educative process;
accomplished;

there is provision to it utilizes the past the learner is it is governed by

meet individual experiences of the stimulated to think democratic
differences; learner; and reason; principles;

the method used is drill or review is

evaluation is made
supplemented by made an integral part
an integral part of
another method and of teaching and
the teaching process;
instructional devices; learning.
 • Principle of Context – learning depends
largely on the setting materials in which
Principles the process goes on. This principle
comes in different scales of application:
Underlying • textbook only
Instruction • textbook with a supplementary
(James material
Mursell) • non-academic and current materials
(newspaper, clippings, articles,
magazine)
• multi-sensory aids
• field experiences; personal, social and
community understanding
 • Principle of Focus – instruction must
be organized about a focus or
direction
• Scales of application
Principles • Focus established by:
Underlying • page assignment in textbook
Instruction • announced topic together with
page or chapter references
• broad concept or a problem to be
solved, or a skill to be acquired to
carry on understanding
 • Principle of Socialization –
instruction depends upon the
social setting in which it is done.
Principles • Scales of application
Underlying • Social patterns characterized by:
Instruction • submission
• contribution
• cooperation
 • Principle of Individualization – instruction
must progress in terms of the learner’s own
purposes, aptitudes, abilities and
experimental procedures
• Scales of application
Principles • Individualization through:
Underlying • differential performance in uniform tasks
• homogenous grouping
Instruction • contract plan
• individual instruction
• large units with optional related activity
• individual undertakings, stemming from
and contributing to the joint undertaking
of the group of learners
Principles Underlying Instruction

Principle of Sequence – instruction depends on effective ordering of a series

of learning tasks.
• Sequence is a movement
• from meaningless emergence of meaning
• from immediate remote
• from concrete symbolic
• from crude discriminating
• Scales of application
• Sequence through
• logical succession of blocks of content (lesson/courses)
• knitting learning/lesson/course together by introductions, previews, pretests, reviews
• organized in terms of readiness
• organized in terms of lines of emerging meanings
 Principles Underlying
Instruction
Principle of Evaluation –
learning is heightened by a
valid and discriminating
Scales of application
appraisal of all its aspects

evaluation related evaluation on total

evaluation or direct
to objectives and learning process
results only
process and results
A. Lesson Clarity
• Make their points understandable and
explain concepts clearly so their students
can follow in a logical step by step order.
Five key
• Oral delivery is clear, audible and free from
distracting mannerisms.
Behaviors
B. Instructional Variety Contributin
• Refers to the variability or flexibility of
delivery during the presentation of the
g to
lesson Effective
• Includes the use of learning materials,
equipment, displays and space in the Teaching
classroom
• Involves asking questions and
discrimination of different question formats
C. Teacher Task Orientation
• Refers to how much classroom time
the teacher devotes to the tasks of
teaching academic subjects
• Takes place in during teacher-student
transaction where teacher-students
interaction focuses more on
intellectual content that allows
students an opportunity to learn and
have higher rates of achievement
• Makes classroom instruction parallel
to the instructional goals and
curriculum that guide the construction
of assessment of student progress
D. Engagement in the Learning Process
• Refers to the amount of time students actively
devote to learning an academic subject
• Students are engaged with instructional
materials and benefiting from the activities
being presented.
E. Student Success Rate
• Refers to the rate at which students understand
and correctly complete exercises and activities
• Consists of teacher’s task orientation and
student engagement as they are closely related
to student success rate
• Involves organization and planning of
instruction that yields moderate-to-high
success
INSTRUCTIONAL PLANNING

Lesson Plan
Prior to Instruction
Multifaceted and Ongoing
Process
Should be done regularly
Principles for Planning
Instruction
1 2 3

Examine how we will know that

our students are learning and
that they can perform tasks as
a result of learning.
Principles for Planning
Instruction
1 2 3
Identify which instructional
practices will assure us that the
students have learned that they
can use the information
provided.
 • teacher- attitudes, beliefs, teacher’s
Variables in content background
• students- age, background knowledge,
Instructional motivational level, interest

Planning • content- the type of content that

influences the planning process, textbook
(Brown, being used
• learning context- subject matter guidelines
1988) • material/ resources- activities and
equipment/ tools for teaching are
considered first in planning
• time- considerable planning for
time/alloted time for the subject
Instructional Objectives
• Specific and relates to singular subjects and grade
levels which includes…
• audience
• behavior
• conditions
• criterion of success
At the end of a.the sixty-minute period, given
a persuasive essay, b.the grade 9 students
should be c.able to identify d.all the
assumptions presented by the author in an
essay.
Domains
• Each domain reflects a
and Levels
particular set of beliefs
of and assumptions about
Objectives how students learn and
behave
 Cognitive Domain - objectives that have their purpose to
develop students’ intellectual skills (Benjamin Bloom)

Domains a. Remember - retrieving relevant knowledge from long-term

memory.

and • Recognizing
• Recalling

Levels of b. Understand - determining the meaning of instructional messages,

including oral, written, and graphic communication. Interpreting

Objectives •
•
Exemplifying
Summarizing
• Inferring
• Explaining

c. Apply - carrying out or using a procedure in a given situation.

• Executing
• Implementing
d. Analyze - breaking material into its constituent parts and detecting how the
parts relate to one another and to an overall structure or purpose.
• Differentiating
• Organizing
• Attributing
• Comparing and contrasting

e. Evaluate - making judgments based on criteria and standards.

• Checking
• Critiquing
f. Create - putting elements together to form a coherent whole or make an
original product.
• Generating
• Planning
• Producing
 Affective Domain - deals with attitudes, values, interest
and appreciation which ranges from simple awareness or
perception of something to internalizing a phenomenon so that
it becomes a part of one’s lifestyle (David Krathwohl)

Domains • receiving – emphasis on becoming aware of some

communication or phenomenon from the environment

and Levels
choose, hold, point to, describe
• responding – emphasis on reacting to a communication or
phenomenon through participation comply, follow,
of practice, volunteer
• valuing – emphasis on attaching worth to something form
Objectives the environment evaluating beliefs in the form of
acceptance, preference, and commitment initiate, invite,
share
• organization – organizing the values in relation to each
other alter, combine, organize
• characterization – acts in accordance with the accepted
value and becomes part of personality act, display,
perform
 Psychomotor Domain - objectives in this
domain are especially appropriate of the objectives
generally associated with motor and muscular-skill
Domains development (Elizabeth Simpson)
• Perception- Uses the sense organs to obtain
and Levels cues that guide motor activity; ranges from
sensory stimulation (awareness) through cue
of selection to translation. feel, hear, smell
• Set- Readiness to take a particular action,
Objectives includes mental, physical, and emotional set.
Perception is an important prerequisite. adjust,
arrange, locate
• Guided response- Concerned with early stages
of learning a complex skill. Includes imitation,
trial and error. imitate, practice, repeat

Psychomotor Domain continued
• Mechanism- Concerned with habitual responses
that can be performed with some confidence and
proficiency ( less complex). assemble,
manipulate, set-up
• Complex Overt Response- Skillfully performs acts
that require complex movement patterns, like the
highly coordinated motor activities. Proficiency
indicated by quick, smooth, and accurate
performance, requiring minimum effort.
combine, coordinate, integrate
• Adaptation- Concerned with skills so well learned
that they are modified to fit special requirements
or to meet a problem situation. adapt, adjust,
alter
• Origination- Creates new movement patterns to
fit a particular situation or problem. construct,
design, invent
PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN
Anita Harrow

REFLEX

FUNDAMENTAL

PERCEPTUAL ABILITIES
PHYSICAL ABILITIES

SKILLED

NON-DISCURSIVE
 Seven •Students can develop to
comprehens enhance the way they
ion or process and integrate
thinking information (Letter, 1985).
These are skills teachers
skills should understand and
help students acquire.
Seven comprehension or thinking skills

1. Analysis (sometimes called field dependence-

independence) – the ability to breakdown complex
information into part for the purpose of identification
and organization.
2. Focusing (Scanning) – the ability to select relevant or
important information without being distracted or
confused by the irrelevant or secondary information.
3. Comparative Analysis (reflective-impulsivity) – the ability
to select a correct item from among several alternatives
and to compare information and make proper choices.
Seven comprehension or thinking skills
4. Narrowing (breadth of categorization) – the ability to identify and place
new information into categories through its attributes (physical
characteristics, principles or functions)
5. Complex Cognitive (Complexity-simplicity) – the ability to integrate
complex information into existing cognitive structures (long-term memory)
6. Sharpening (sharpening-leveling) – the ability to maintain distinctions
between cognitive structures (including old new information) and to avoid
confusion or overlap.
7. Tolerance (tolerant-intolerant) – the ability to monitor and modify thinking.
The ability to deal with ambiguous or unclear information without getting
frustrated.
 Principles in Determining Learning
Activities

Learning is a discovery of PERSONAL

P MEANING AND RELEVANCE OF IDEAS.

CO
 Principles in Determining Learning
Activities

Learning is a discovery of PERSONAL

P MEANING AND RELEVANCE OF IDEAS.

A Learning is an ACTIVE PROCESS.

CO
 Principles in Determining Learning
Activities

Learning is a discovery of PERSONAL

P MEANING AND RELEVANCE OF IDEAS.

A Learning is an ACTIVE PROCESS.

Effective learning begins with CLEAR AND HIGH

C EXPECTATIONS AND LEARNING OUTCOMES

CO
Principles in Determining Learning Activities

Learning is a discovery of PERSONAL MEANING

P AND RELEVANCE OF IDEAS.

Learning is an ACTIVE PROCESS.

A
Effective learning begins with CLEAR AND HIGH
EXPECTATIONS AND LEARNING OUTCOMES
C
Learning is a COOPERATIVE AND
CO COLLABORATIVE PROCESS
 PRINCIPLES
Selection of Learning
Materials

P • PRESENT
F
• PREPARE • PREPARE • FOLLOW UP
• YOURSELF THE
YOUR MATERIAL
STUDENT
P P
PRINCIPLES
Selection of Learning
Materials
All instructional material are aids to
instruction. Do not replace the teacher.
PRINCIPLES
Selection of Learning
Materials
All instructional material are aids to
instruction. Do not replace the teacher.
Choose the IM that best suits your
instructional objectives.
PRINCIPLES
Selection of Learning
Materials
All instructional material are aids to
instruction. Do not replace the teacher.
Choose the IM that best suits your
instructional objectives.

If possible, use a variety of tools.

PRINCIPLES
Selection of Learning
Materials
All Ims are aids to instruction. They do
not replace the teacher.
Choose the IM that best suits your
instructional objectives.

If possible, use a variety of tools.

Check IMs before class starts to be sure its
working properly.
 INSTRUCTIONAL
Types of
MATERIALS
>Oldest equipment
Chalkboard >Most widely used IM
next to textbook

>display learners
projects & progress
Bulletin boards >Most widely used IM
next to textbook

>Maps, Graphs,
Charts Photographs,
Cut-outs
 INSTRUCTIONAL
Types of
MATERIALS
Audio >Tapes, Records, CD
>Speech rehearsal,
Recordings radio, TV broadcast
>Show pictures,
Overhead Projector/ diagrams and
Transparencies sketches that can be
projected on screen

Electronic >CDs, DVDs, CD-

Materials ROMs, Internet

 INSTRUCTIONAL
Types of
MATERIALS
>Flat
Pictures >Opaque
>Still

Books >Contain information,

pictures and graphics

>Films -movies
Films, Film Strips & >Filmstrips – series
Filmslides of pictures
>Film slides – indivi-
dual series of film
 INSTRUCTIONAL
Types of
MATERIALS
>Scaled replicas
Model of real objects

>Scaled replica
Mock-up >Detachable
>Show essential parts

>Real things
Realia >8mm-16m
Dale’s Cone of Experience
• The individual bands of the Cone
of Experience stands for
experiences that are fluid,
extensive, and continually interact.
• Edgar Dale, 1969
Edgar
Dale’s Cone
of
Experience
The Concrete- Abstract
Continuum
• Instruction should proceed from direct
experience (enactive) to iconic
presentation of experience (e.g. using
pictures and films) to symbolic
presentation (i.e. using words).
Learning is facilitated when instruction
follows a sequence from actual
experience to iconic representation to
symbolic or abstract representation
a. Prior to Instruction: Pre assessment
• done to determine the learner’s entry
behavior (what What
knowledge/skills/attitudes they already evaluation
know or still need to know) before type to use
objectives are set or before instruction
begins for maximum learning purposes during the
• involves use of such instruments as instructional
readiness test, aptitude test, pre-test act
on course objectives, or observational
techniques
What b. During
Evaluation
Instruction: Formative

evaluation • provides on-going feedback to the

type to use teachers and students regarding their
success or failure during instruction;
during the • helpful in deciding whether changes in
instructional subsequent learning experiences are
needed
act • helpful in determining specific learning
errors that need correction
• usually makes use of paper and pencil
tests and observational methods
What c. After Instruction: Summative
Evaluation
evaluation • is provided to determine
type to use • how well students have
during the learned/attained
objectives
instructional
instructional • what rating the students deserve to
act get
• how well instruction was done
• includes the use of achievements tests,
rating scales, or evaluation of student’s
products
 Approach- viewpoint toward teaching

Strategy- general design of how the

lesson will be delivered

Concepts
Method- procedure employed to
accomplish the lesson objective/s

Technique- style or art of carrying out

the steps of a method
 Lesson Plan Components
Hunter Gagne Slavin Good and Brophy
1. Review 1. State learning objectives 1. Review
2. Anticipatory set 1. Gain attention 2-.Review prerequisites

3. Objective 2. Inform learner of objective

3. Recall prior knowledge
4. Input 4. Present the stimulus material 3. Present new material 2. Development

5. Modeling 5. Provide learning guidance 4. Conduct learning probes 3. Assess

6. Check for 6. Elicit performance

understanding
7. Guided practice 7. Provide feedback
8. Independent practice 5. Provide independent practice 4. Seatwork

8.Assess performance 6. Assess performance & provide 5. Accountability

feedback
9. Ensure retention & transfer 7. Provide practice & review 6. Homework

7. Special reviews
 General Approaches to Teaching
A Comparison Between Direct and Indirect Approaches
Direct Approach Indirect Approach
 makes use of expository strategies  makes use of exploratory strategies
 aimed at mastery of knowledge  aimed at generating knowledge for
and skills experience
 teacher-oriented  learner-centered
 direct transmission of information  students search for information with
from teacher teacher’s supervision
 teacher-controlled  learner-controlled
 highly structured  flexibly organized
 content-oriented  experience-oriented
 learner is passive, receives ready  learner is active in search for
information from the teacher information
 Direct Instruction: Deductive Method
1. Deductive Teaching/Anticipatory Deduction/Explanatory Deduction
Concept/s Steps

I. Statement of the Problem

• motivation
• discussion/relating problem to real life
situation
• Present a rule/concept/ generalization/
principle II. Generalization
• illustrate these rule/concept , etc. with • solve the problem from given one or two
examples generalization, rules
Anticipatory – forecasts details found in the
different students III. Inferring
Explanatory – connects facts with • look for the principle that will fit the solution
principles as interpreted by the teacher of the problem

IV. Verification
• establish validity using references/ materials
 Direct Instruction: Showing Method
2. Showing Method
Concept/s Steps
I. Introduction
 review of prior learning
II. Presentation
• used for teaching concepts and skills
 explaining the new concept
• a teacher-centered strategy that uses teacher
 modeling the skill
explanation and modeling combined with
student practice and feedback to teach
concepts and skills III. Guided practice with necessary feedback
• widely applicable in different content areas  provides necessary practice to practice new
• establishes interaction between teacher and skills
students  categorize examples of new concept
• helps students to learn procedural knowledge
• promotes learning of declarative knowledge
• focuses students’ attention on specific
content/skill IV. Independent Practice
• ensures mastery of skills
 more practice of the skill on concept learned for
retention and transfer
 Direct Instruction: Lecture Method
3. Lecture-Discussion/Expository Method
Concept/s Steps
I. Planning
 Identifying goals
 Diagnosing student background
 designed to keep students learn organized bodies of  Structuring
knowledge  Preparing advance organizers
 a teacher-directed model designed to keep learners
understand relationship in organized bodies of
knowledge II. Implementation
 attempts to help students understand not only the A. Introduction
concepts but how they are related defining the purpose of the lesson, sharing of
 based on David Ausubel’s concept of meaningful objectives and overview to help students see the
verbal learning
organization of the lesson
 helps learner link new with prior learning and relate B. Presentation
the different parts of new learning to each other
 defining/explaining major ideas
 designed to overcome the most important weakness
 comprehension monitoring - determining whether or
of the lecture method by strongly emphasizing not student understand concepts and ideas
learners involvement in the learning process C. integration-
 applicable in different subject areas • exploring interconnection between important ideas
 ensures clear understanding of information D. Review and closure
 allows student’s participation
 summarizing the lecture
 Direct Instruction: Lecture Method
3. Lecture-Discussion/Expository Method
Concept/s Steps
I. Planning
 Identifying goals
 Diagnosing student background
 designed to keep students learn organized bodies of  Structuring
knowledge  Preparing advance organizers
 a teacher-directed model designed to keep learners
understand relationship in organized bodies of
knowledge II. Implementation
 attempts to help students understand not only the A. Introduction
concepts but how they are related defining the purpose of the lesson, sharing of objectives
 based on David Ausubel’s concept of meaningful verbal and overview to help students see the organization of
learning the lesson
 helps learner link new with prior learning and relate the
B. Presentation
different parts of new learning to each other
 defining/explaining major ideas
 designed to overcome the most important weakness of
 comprehension monitoring - determining whether or not
the lecture method by strongly emphasizing learners student understand concepts and ideas
involvement in the learning process C. integration-
 applicable in different subject areas • exploring interconnection between important ideas
 ensures clear understanding of information D. Review and closure
 allows student’s participation
 summarizing the lecture
 Indirect Instruction: Inductive Method
Inductive Teaching Strategies
Concept/s Steps
I. Preparation
 It is a discovery learning strategy  apperception
 Involves many observable cases or  motivation
instances that can be compared by the  presentation of the aims of the lesson
learners II. Presentation
 Students formed own conclusions/  teacher/learner cite specific cases of instances which will be
generalization when they are ready to the source/ bases of drawing generalization
so
 Used when the generalizations are
III. Comparison and Abstraction
important enough to justify the time
 noting commonalities/differences among the cases, examples
spent to the lesson
cited
 Lesson progresses from observations
to generalizations IV. Generalization
 Draw generalization from the instances/ examples given from
generalization which can be a rule, a formula, principle,
concept, etc.

V. Applications
 Use the newly learned generalizations in new real life
situations
 Indirect Instruction: Inquiry Method
Inquiry Approach
Concept/s Steps

I. Presentation and clarification of a problem/

issue of inquiry
• Engages learners in critical thinking , analysis • presentation of objectives
and problem solving • statement of the problem, issue or query
• A systematic and disciplines method of solving • clarification of the problem
and assessing results
• Involves testing solution to see if they work
and a step-step procedure to solve a problem
systematically II. Formulation of Hypotheses
• Engages students in investigative work • giving tentative solutions to the problem/
query
• clarify hypotheses
• noting down of hypotheses
Continued: Inquiry Method
Inquiry Approach
Concept/s Steps

III. Gathering Data

• Involves scientific ways of solving problems
• select references/sources of data/ information
that include these steps:
• appraise and organize the needed information
1. Defining problems
to answer the problem solving
2. Formulation of hypotheses
3. Gathering data
4. Analyzing & interpreting data IV. Testing Hypothesis
5. Making conclusion
Forms of Inquiry V. Formulation of Conclusions
6. Guided Inquiry • Note needs for more study and evaluate
 Teacher provides data, problems, procedures
questions to students
7. Open inquiry
 Students give solutions/ gather data and VI. Application
draw conclusions • Solving problems using rule/principle etc. in
8. Individualized Inquiry new situations
 Students work independently
Indirect Instruction: Laboratory Method
Laboratory/Investigative Method
Concept/s
 Hands-on experiences about materials or facts
obtained from research, investigation or
experiences
 Actual context of learners with the
materials/variables
 Used to develop skill in basic science process
 A discovery experience
 Develop centered thinking skills
 Involves all students in the manipulative skills
 Role of teacher is mostly supervision of activity
 Proper handling of tools, equipments, laboratory
material (keeping/using/ retrieval)
 Opportunity to improvise tools/ equipments
(resourcefulness)
Steps
I. Preparatory
 Motivation
 Orientation to the work/activity
 Presentation of materials
 Precautionary measures
II. Supervised Work Period/Laboratory
 Students work on the problem (may be the same of
different problem)
 Teacher supervises the students’ work
III. Culminating Activities
 Reporting of group work result/findings
 Discussion of the process/findings
 Formulation of generalization, rule, concepts, etc.
 Application of the discussed concepts/
generalization to new situation
Indirect Instruction: Discovery Method
Discovery Teaching
Concept/s Steps
Inductive Discovery
I. Observe and discuss specific examples
II. Identify and describe common elements or features
• Teacher facilitates discovery
• Learners participate actively in the III. Discuss other examples and note common elements
learning process
• Learning depends on own insights, IV. State main idea based on the common
elements against the new examples –
reflections and experiences (discovery elements
learning)
The two discovery teaching strategies Deductive Discovery
are I. Present an idea that can be verified against evidences
 Inductive discovery II. Learners gather/collect finds supporting evidences or
examples
 Deductive discovery III. Reasoning/Justifying why a certain evidence found is
supportive to the main idea.
IV. Students continue searching/finding other evidences to
support the given idea.
Indirect Instruction: Project Method
Project Method
Concept/s
 A significant practical unit of activity of a
problematic nature
 Involves planning and carrying out of the
planned activities
 Students complete certain task in a natural
manner
 Involves the use of physical materials to
complete the unit of experience
 Develops sense of cooperation, responsibility
to complete a task
 Energizes students to evaluate own and
other’s works (projects) objectively based on
developed criteria.
Steps
I. Purposing
 Statement of objectives of the projects
 Explain the nature of the project
 Teacher and students decide on the activities
cooperatively
II. Executing
 Student carry out the activities as planned
under the guidance of the teacher
III. Evaluation
 Viewing of finished project
 Evaluation by teacher and students based on
some decided criteria for the project
evaluation
 Indirect Instruction: Concept Development Method
Concept/s
 An inductive teaching strategy designed to
help students reinforce their understanding of
concepts and practice hypotheses testing
based on the positive and negative examples
presented to them
 Encourages students to think freely
 Trains students to develop hypotheses
 Trains students to formulate definition or
generalization
 Promotes student participation
 Used for forming generalization
 Develops critical thinking through hypotheses
testing.
Steps
I. Presenting examples
 Positive and negative examples are presented and
hypotheses generated
II. Analysis of hypotheses
 Hypotheses analyzed in the light of new examples
III. Closure
 Examples are continuously analyzed and generate
critical characteristics and form a definition
IV. Application
 Additional examples are provided and analyzed in
terms of the definition learned
 Problem-Based Instruction (PBI)
• The essence of PBI consists of presenting students
with authentic/meaningful situation that can serve
as springboards for investigations and inquiry.
Other Indirect • This model is highly effective approach for teaching
higher-level thinking processes
Models/Strategi • Deriving questions on problem both socially
es of Teaching important and personally meaningful to students.
• Interdisciplinary focus on a particular subject but
solutions requires students to deliver into many
subjects.
• Authentic investigation necessitates students to
pursue investigation that seek real solution to real
problems.
• Production of artifacts and exhibits requires
students to construct products in the form of
artifacts and exhibits that represents their solutions.
 Constructivist Models
• Popularized by Piaget and Vygotsky
• A perspective of teaching and learning in which a
learner constructs meaning from experience and
interaction with others
Other Indirect • Teacher provides meaningful/relevant
Models/Strategies experiences for students from which students
of Teaching construct their own meaning (facilitation)
• Suggests that learners develop their own
understanding of topics they study instead of
having it delivered to them by others.
• Places learner in the center of the learning
process while they play an active role in the
process of constructing their own understanding.
 Reflective Teaching
• Process that enables individual to continually learn
from own experiences by considering alternative
interpretations of experiences, actions, discussions,
beliefs, using introspection and analysis
Other Indirect • Used when students:
• Acquire concrete experiences
Models/Strategie • Analyzes experiences
s of Teaching • Form abstractions
• Apply generalizations to actual situation
• Types: Reflection-in-action, Reflection-on-action
(Donald Schon) Reflection-with action,
Reflection-for-action (Tony Ghaye)
 “Meta” means beyond, therefore this strategy goes
beyond cognition

Metacognitive Make students think about thinking, guiding

students to become more strategic thinkers by
Strategy helping them understand the way they process info.

Processes include: advance organization,

organizational planning, directed attention,
selective attention, self-monitoring, self-evaluation
and auditory representation (use of think-alouds)
 Cooperative Learning Strategies
Other Indirect Features:
Models/Strate • Heterogeneously grouped
gies of • Interdependence among
Teaching members
• Individual accountability
• Explicit teaching of
collaborative skills
 Multiple Intelligences – MI believes that
children’s thinking and learning skills vary widely
from child to child. It aims to develop learners
Other who are analytic, interactive, and introspective.
Models/ • Nine Intelligences
Strategies of • Verbal –linguistic Interpersonal
Teaching • Mathematical-logical Intrapersonal
• Musical Naturalist
• Visual-Spatial Existential
• Bodily Kinesthetic
Objective: To identify the parts of a flower and their respective functions.
Procedure:
Motivation – ask the pupils to show their favorite flower and explain why it is their
favorite.
• (The pupils were assigned to bring their favorite flower in class the day before.)
Lesson Development
a. Present a drawing of a Gumamela flower with the parts labelled then give a
lecture on the parts of a flower by using the labelled drawing.
b. Ask the pupils to look for these parts in the flower they brought.
c. Call on pupils to show the parts of a flower by using the flower they brought.
d. Summarize the lesson by asking them if they like their flowers and why.
Evaluation:
• Give a short quiz on the function of each part of the flower. Make the students identify
the parts of a flower and their respective functions.
 Is the lesson development complete to cover the lesson
objective?
A. No. It lacks a discussion on the functions of the parts of a
flower.
B. Yes, a discussion of the parts of a flower is also discussion of
their respective functions.
C. No, it can be completed with the use of a model showing
the parts of a flower.
D. Yes, it is the evaluation item that is out of place.
Did the lesson development reach the level of
integration of facts for conceptual understanding?
A. Yes.
B. Somewhat, when the pupils were asked to
explain why they like their flowers.
C. Very much. Identifying the parts of a flower with
the help of a labelled drawing is in the level of
integration.
D. No
Was the evaluation item valid?
A. Yes, the parts of a flower include their
respective functions.
B. Yes, it matches with the lesson objective.
C. No, teacher should ask the students to draw the
gumamela flower and label its parts.
D. No, the functions of the parts of a flower were
not covered in the lesson.
Was the summary appropriate?
A. No, it should have been based on the lesson
objective.
B. No, it should have been better if the pupils were
asked to draw the flowers they brought.
C. Yes, it gives the lesson an affective dimension.
D. Yes, it was a why question and led the pupils to
reflect.
Based on principles of instructional planning particularly
on content organization, how can the lesson be
improved?
A. Present more flowers in class.
B. Include a discussion on the functions of each part of
the flower.
C. Ask the pupils to draw generalization on flower parts
based on what they heard and saw in class.
D. Assign the class to make a garden of flowers in school.
 Types of Discussion Procedures

Panel- Forum- A direct, conversational, interactional discussion

among a small group of experts or well-informed lay persons

• Like any intelligent conversation, except that participant

speak loud enough for the audience to hear
• Success depends on the preparations done before the
meeting, the wise selection of participants, and the
discussant leader
Symposium-Forum
• More formal than the panel discussion
• Persons with special competence deliver uninterrupted
speeches on different aspects of a problem, and these are
followed by a forum period
• Essentially a public-speaking program; not conversational
Debate
• A discussion that occurs when people with different beliefs
study the same problem and arrive at different conclusions;
• A more formal type in which each participant makes a
prepared speech for or against a proposition;
• Debaters are usually allotted equal time to speak to present
an analysis of a problem and a fair presentation of the
arguments for or against it.
Round Table Conference
• A small discussion group seated face to face around
a table, without a larger audience; a small
conference by another name and has the nature of
an informal semi social gathering
• Members will not be hearing speeches but do their
own talking
Special Techniques to insure active participation
in the forum period:
a. Role playing
• Spontaneous acting out of problems or situations
• Portray a situation more candidly
• Other performance activities: socio drama, dramatization
b. Case Study/Type Study
• Another group centered procedure which presents
specific situations or problems to stimulate discussion
• This technique implies extensive analysis and
interpretation of a case selected to demonstrate a
learning outcome
Special Techniques to insure active participation in the
forum period:
c. Buzz Session/Brainstorming
• Is used when dealing with familiar topics that need
group opinion, evaluating, planning or interaction
d. Simulation
• Is an enactment of a make-believe episode as much
like the real thing as possible
Special Techniques to insure active participation in the forum period:
e. Seminar
• Deliberately looks for the solution to the problems form the evidence based on
reading, experiences and minds of the participants
• Attempts to develop a policy or solution that is better than what is in existence
f. Workshop
• Involves the use of group process in attacking and solving problems
• Persons with problems of common concern come together to attack and solve
their problems cooperatively
• Makes use of a variety of means and devices in the solution of problems such as
group meeting, individual conference, field trips, excursions and the use of
resource persons and consultants
• Values gained from the workshop are both intellectual and social
What is • Key technique in teaching
Questioning? • Purposes of Questions
• Arouse interest and curiosity
• Review content already
learned
• Stimulate learners to ask
questions
• Promote though and the
understanding of ideas
• Change the mood/tempo,
direction of the discussion
• Encourage reflection and self
evaluation
• Allow expressions of feelings
Types of Questions
According to thinking process involved:

Low-level questions- focused on facts, don’t test level of

understanding or problem-solving skills
• Examples: Who declared martial law? What important events happened in WW II?

High-level questions- go beyond memory and factual information,

more advance, stimulating and more challenging, involve
abstraction and point of view.
• Examples: How did the recent war between the government forces and MILF affect
the people in Mindanao? What alternative could we practice to become attentive?
 According to type of answer required:
Convergent questions- tend to have on correct and best
answer.
• Are used to drill learners on vocabulary, spelling and oral
skills but not appropriate for eliciting thoughtful
responses
• Usually start with what, who, when, or where
Types of • Are referred to as low-level questions
• Are useful when applying inductive approach and
Questions requires short and specific information from the
learners
Divergent questions- open-ended and usually have many
appropriate answers.
• Reasoning is supported by evidence and examples
• Associated with high level thinking processes and
encourage creative thinking and discovery learning
• Usually start with how and why, what or who followed
by why
 According to the cognitive taxonomy
1st Level: Knowledge- memorize, recall, label, specify, define,
list, cite, etc

2ndLevel: Comprehension- describe, discuss, explain, summarize

Types of translate, etc

Questions 3rd Level: Application- solve, employ, demonstrate, operate

experiment, etc.

4th Level: Analysis- interpret, differentiate, compare

5th Level: Synthesis - Invent, develop, generalize

6th Level: Evaluation- Criticize, judge, interpret

 Types of Questions

According to the questions used by teachers during open discussion

Eliciting Questions- these are employed to
• Encourage an initial response
• Encourage more students to participate in the discussion
• Rekindle a discussion that is lagging or dying out
Probing Question—seek to:
• Expand or extend ideas
• Justify ideas
• Clarify ideas
Closure-seeking Questions
• used to help students form conclusions, solutions or plans for investigating
problems.
 Types of Questions
(Stephen Brooksfield)

Epistemological: Why does the author believe that ___?

Experiential: What have you encountered that makes you think
that ___?
Communicative: How does the author rhetorically convey her
theme?
Political: What groups would take issue with the implicit
message that ___?
Sequencing Questions
Extending
Extending Lifting
Step by step up
Step by step down
Funneling
Sowing and Reaping
Nose-dive
Guidelines in Asking Questions
Wait Time - the interval between asking a question and the student
response.

Prompting - uses hints and techniques to assist students to come up

whit a response successfully

Redirection - involves asking of a single question for which there are

several answers; used in a high-level questioning.

Probing - a qualitative technique used for the promotion of effective thought and
critical thinking; provides the students a chance to support or defend a stand or point
of view

Commenting and Prompting /Reacting- used to increase achievement

and motivation
What is Classroom Management?

Refers to the operation and control of classroom activities;

involves the ability to maintain order and sustain student
attention.
Purpose:
• To minimize the occurrences of discipline problems.
• To increase the proportion of classroom time devoted to
constructive and productive activity.
 Classroom Management is…

Techniques of Managerial and

managing students disciplinary approach are
Integral part of must be delivered
directly affected by
teaching skillfully by the
teacher’s personality,
philosophy and teaching
teacher style
Classroom management is
closely linked to issues of
motivation, discipline and
respect
Effective classroom management requires…
• Awareness
• Patience
• Good timing
• Boundaries
• Instinct / Common Sense
 5 Principles of Outstanding
Classroom Management

1 2 3 4 5
TAKE CARE OF FOCUS ON SET RULES, TAKE A INVOLVE PARENTS
YOURSELF TO BUILDING Healthy BOUNDARIES, AND STRENGTH-BASED AND GUARDIANS
TAKE CARE OF RELATIONSHIPS EXPECTATIONS (AND APPROACH
YOUR STUDENTS DO IT EARLY)
 Two Major Individual problem
categories (Dreikurs
Categories
and Cassel)
of
Classroom
Managemen Group Problems
t Problems (Johnson and Bany)
 Individual
problem
• Based on the assumption that
human behavior is purposive
and goal-seeking
• A person has a fundamental
need to belong and to feel
worthwhile.
Four Types of Attention-getting
Misbehavior
(Mistaken Power-seeking
Goals)
Revenge-seeking
Display of inadequacy
(in the order of severity)
 Do I feel annoyed by the child’s
Technique behavior?
by which a Do I feel threatened or defeated
teacher can by the child’s behavior?

identify the Do I feel deeply hurt by the child’s

behavior?
nature of
the problem Do I feel helpless?
 Behavior Influence Techniques

Activity reinforcement Antiseptic Contingent

/ Premack / Grandma
bouncing Observation Contract
Rule

Hurdle helping I Messages ( I (feeling)

Direct appeal when ( student behavior)
and Peer
and Reprimand because ( reason using
Mediation child’s perspective)
 Monitor sheet

Parent conference
Behavior
Influence Interest bonding

Techniques.. Proximity control

. Physical interaction

Reinforcing the positive

Removal of seductive object

 Signal interference

Planned ignoring
Behavior Seclusion
Influence
Techniques ... In-school suspension

Out-school suspension

Expulsion
 Group Classroom
Management Problems

2. Non-adherence
3. Negative
to behavioral 4. Class approval of
1. Lack of Unity standards and work
reactions to
misbehavior
individual members
procedures

5. Being prone to
6. Low morale and 7. Inability to adjust
distraction, work
hostile, resistant or to environmental
stoppage and
aggressive change
imitative behaviors
Types of Control

01 02 03
Preventive Supportive Corrective
Control - aimed Control - aimed at Control - seeks
at minimizing the directing student’ discipline student’
onset of anticipated behavior before it behavior before it
discipline problems becomes a full-blown becomes a full
though planning. problem. standard of good
conduct.
 Dangle/Dangling - issues or
questions left unfinished
Some teacher Truncation – same as dangle but the
pitfalls that teacher does not resume the
initiated activity, then dropped it all
affect together

effective Flip flop – informal, sudden,

management unexpected reversal

of instruction Over-dwelling – giving too much

time or attention to something
longer than required
 • Fragmentation- when a teacher breaks down
an activity or a behavior into subparts even
though the activity could be performed easily
as a single unit or an uninterrupted sequence.
• Jerkiness- lack of lesson smoothness and
momentum

Pitfalls
• Thrust- a teacher’s sudden ‘bursting in’ on
students’ activities with an order or statement
or question without being sensitive to the
group’s readiness to receive the message.
Too much work given at a time that causes
confusion and frustration
• Stimulus-bound – when a teacher has
students engaged in a lesson and something
else attracts the teacher’s attention
 Techniques of Building Good Discipline:
• Demonstration. Students know exactly what is expected. In addition to
having expected behavior explained to them, they see and hear it.
• Attention. Students focus their attention on what is being depicted or
explained. The degree of attention correlates with the characteristic of
the model (teacher) and characteristics of students
• Practice. Students are given opportunities to practice the appropriate
behavior.
• Corrective feedback. Students receive frequent, specific, and
immediate behavior is suppressed and corrected.
• Application. Students are able to apply their learning in classroom
activities (role playing, modeling activities) and other real-life situations