Fundamentals of Hardware and

Software

1
What is a computer?
A computer may be define as an electronic
device which accepts input, processes the input
and produces results (output) from the
processing and store data for future use.

2
What are the main component of a computer system

Hardware- Physical parts of a computer that

you can see and touch.

Input devices- They get data into a computer.

E.g. keyboard, mouse, scanner.

CPU-(Central Processing Unit)- This is the

brain of the computer and controls how the rest
of the computer works.

3
Cont’d
Output devices- They get processed information
out of a computer. e.g. printer, monitor,
speakers.

Storage Devices- Devices used for storing

information permanently. E.g. hard disk drive,
CDROM drives, flash drives, floppy drive.

Memory-enables a computer to temporarily

store instructions and data

4
Explain the functions of the major hardware
components of the computer system

Control Unit- This is part of the CPU responsible

for fetching and executing programmed
instructions used to operate the computer.

ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)- Responsible for

performing all the tasks pertaining to arithmetic.

Secondary Storage- Also known as auxilliary

storage, this memory is external, where it stores
programs and data for future use

5
Outline the functions and use of Primary
Storage Devices
• Bistable Devices-a device that can exist in one of two
possible states. It can be compared to an on/off switch.

• PROM(Programmable Read Only Memory)

Once programmed cannot be erased.

• EPROM(Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory-)

erased by exposure to ultra-violet lights.

• EEPROM - (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read

Only Memory) erased by exposure to electrical charge

6
Cont’d
RAM (Random Access Memory)-Contains
temporary or volatile memory which is lost
(erased) whent he computer's power supply is
turned off.

ROM-Read Only Memory

A memory chip that stores instruction and data
permanently. Contents are non-volatile (not lost
when the computer's power supply is lost).

7
Manipulate units of storage
• Bit - a unit of storage that has two possible values 0
and 1. It is the smallest unit. It is derived from Binary
Digit
• Byte - a group of eight bits.
• Word - the size of the data (or instruction) that the
CPU can handle in a single cycle.
• Word length/word size - the number of bits in a word.
• Address - the identification of a particular location in
the memory where a data item or an instruction is
stored.
• Address content - the data or instruction that is stored
in a given address.

8
Cont’d
Megabyte- A megabyte is 2 to the 20th power, or
1,048,576 bytes.

Gigabyte-The equivalent of approximately one

billion bytes

Terabyte- A terabyte is 2 to the 40th power, or

1,099,511,627,776 bytes.

Kilobyte-One thousand and Twenty-four bytes.

(1024 Bytes)

9
Compare the types of secondary storage media with
respect to portability, speed and capacity
• Magnetic tape
A magnetic tape is a tape coated with a
magnetic material on which data can be
stored. This is a sequential access storage
device that is usually used for backup
purposes. Types of magnetic tapes include
cassette, cartridge and reel.

10
• Floppy disk
This is a removable disk that has a small storage
capacity; it is typically used to store documents
so it can be used on more than one computer.
Diskettes are normally used to store backup
copies of important information. Diskettes are
available in two sizes: 51/2 and 31/2 .

11
• Hard disks/hard drive
• This is normally permanently installed and fixed
into the computer. However, there are external
hard drives available. A hard drive can access
data much more quickly than floppy disk drive;
most importantly, it can store much more data.

12
• Flash drives
• Flash drives are data-storage devices
integrated with a USB (universal serial bus)
interface. They are generally 7mm in length and
weigh less than two ounces, making them the
perfect portable storage device. Storage ranges
from 64MB to 64 GB.

13
• FLASH MEMORY
• Flash memory is a non-volatile computer
memory that can be electrically erased and
reprogrammed. It is a technology that is
primarily used in memory cards and USB flash
drives for general storage and transfer of data.

14
• Optical discs
• An optical disc is an electronic data-storage
medium that can be written to and read using a
low-powered laser beam. It can generally store
much more than magnetic media and is a flat,
round, portable metal storage medium (4.75
ins) that is used to store large amounts of pre-
recorded information.

15
 Types of optical discs
CD-ROM (compact disc - read-only memory)
This allows up to 650Mb of stored data. As a
result, it is used in entertainment, atlases and
reference works,

CD-R (compact disc recordable) and CD-RW

(compact discs rewritable)
Data can be written to both types but can be
erased from the CD-RW.

DVD (digital video disc or digital versatile disc)

This allows the user to store up to 17GB of
data, the equivalent of 26 CD-ROMs, and is
popularly used to store full-length feature films.

16
Questions
1.(a) Give ONE similarity and ONE difference
between EACH of the following pairs:
• (i) ROM and RAM
• (ii) ROM and EPROM
• (iii) EPROM and EEPROM
• (iv) Hard disk and floppy disk
• (v) Primary and secondary storage

17
Terms associated with Storage Devices

• Sector-The name given to the pie

shaped section of the disk.

• Tracks-A concentric
circle on the disk used
to store data.

18
Buffer-A temporary area that holds data in
transit from one device to another.

Cylinders-Similar tracks on a platter of disk.

Access Time -Time taken for the read/write

head to access data/information on the disc.

19
• Sequential Access- In sequential access
storage devices, data can be accessed in
sequential manner only. E.g.Punched cards,
paper tape, and magnetic tape.

• Direct access storage - This is where any

data can be accessed without reading any
other data items first (randomly). Examples:
floppy diskette, flash drive, hard disk drive,
etc.

20
• Random Access: item of data can be selected
from anywhere in storage without having to
scan through everything.

• E.g. Memory

21
Device Interfaces
IDE- Intelligent Drive Electronics or
Integrated Drive Electronics.

An IDE interface is an interface for mass

storage devices, in which the controller is
integrated into the disk or CD-ROM drive

22
• SCSI-Small Computer System Interface.

It is a set of standards for physically

connecting and transferring data between
computers and peripheral devices. SCSI is
most commonly used for hard disks and
tape drives, scanners also.

23
• SATA-Serial Advanced Technology
Attachment.

It is a computer bus primarily designed for

transfer of data between a computer and
mass storage devices such as hard disk
drives and optical drives.

24
Explain the uses of various input devices and
media;
Optical Character Recognition (OCR)
Text and graphics are scanned so it can be
edited. Application( laser)
Advantages:
. Speed up the typing process
Disadvantages
1.Text accuracy can be poor.
2.2. Inappropriate for handwritten documents.

25
Optical Mark Recognition (OMR)
Similar to OCR, but it relies on the presence
or absence of precisely positioned marks on
a special form. Application(Multiple choice
papers and Lotteries)
Advantage:
. Data input very quick and exact.
Disadvantages
. Limit to the number of responses.
2. Data may be rejected if there are
inconsistencies

26
Magnetic Ink Character Recognition
(MICR)
Data is represented as special characters
using magnetic ink which is then converted
to text.

Advantage:
1. Fast and highly efficient.
2. Not easily forged.
3. Both human and machine readable
Disadvantages
1. .Limited applications.
2. Its use is dependent on the use of cheques

27
• Mouse
• Clicking of mouse buttons remits
positional information to computer.
Advantages
1.Commands are given directly to
computer by clicking on icon.

Disadvantages
1 Problems with hand-eye coordination.
2. Can be confusing to shift between
mouse and keyboard.
28
 mouse buttons
wheel
button

ball

mouse pad

Flatbed

29
Joystick
Shaped like the gearshift in a car with
different buttons for commands.

Advantages
1.Ideally shaped for its use.

Disadvantages
1. Joystick movement is sensitive and
user has to become familiar with
same.
30
Barcode Reader
Barcodes are groups of bars of differing widths
representing different information on products.

Advantages
1.Fast and accurate
2.Data can be input much faster.
3.Cheap to produce as normal paper and ink can be
used.

Disadvantages
1.Details and order of data cannot be stored
automatically.
2.2. Price of the product is not included in the barcode.

31
• Scanner
• Used to capture hardcopy images and
create digital images.
Advantages
1. Cheap and easy to install
Disadvantages
1. Image quality depends on hardcopy
quality, scanner and associated software.

32
Touch Pad
Small flat rectangular device, which like
the mouse, remits positional information
to the computer.

Advantages
1. Fixed position so very short finger
movements required

 Disadvantages
1.Easily damaged due to dust or water
drops.
2.Too slow if playing games.
33
Touch Screen
Monitor with a touch sensitive panel on
the screen.
Advantages
1.User friendly
2.Can be used by children & bodily
challenged.
Disadvantages
1.More expensive than normal monitors.
2.Limited values can be entered at a time.

34
Keyboard
Key strokes are converted to bits
(computer language) and the item displayed
on screen.

Advantage
1. Inexpensive
2. Common means of entering text.

Disadvantages
1. Time Consuming
2. Speed depends on user experience.
3. Repititive use can cause strain.

35
• Light pen - handheld, pen-shaped device
connected by a cable to a computer with
special software that contains a light source to
detect the presence or absence of light.
• Digital camera and camcorder - devices used
to enter a full motion recording into a computer
and store on a hard disc or some other
medium.

36
• Microphone
• Audio data input, which is analysed for
commands and processed.
Advantages
• 1. Appropriate for blind individuals.
Disadvantages
• 1. Problems identifying homophones.
2. Problems with accents.

37
Smart Card
Magnetic Strip on a plastic card containing
information about the cardholder which is
accessed when swiped. E.g. Bus cards,
debit, credit, phone.
Advantage
1.Stores financial transactions.
2.Transactions are fast.
3.Enables cashless travelling.
Disadvantages
1.Easily damaged.
2.May be replaced in the near future by
embedded microchips.

38
• Musical Instrument Digital Interface
(MIDI)
Used by musicians to create, manipulate and
store sounds into a computer.
Advantages
1. Data can be arranged in many ways after
being stored.
Disadvantages
1. Special software is needed to convert
music into a musical score.

39
• A biometric device- translates a
personal characteristic into digital code
that is compared with a digital code stored
In the computer to identify an individual.
e.g. A fingerprint reader .

40
• point of sale (POS) terminal
Records purchases, processes credit or debit cards,
and updates inventory.

41
Input for Tablet PCs

What is a Tablet PC?

 Mobile computer that
includes handwriting
recognition software

 Primary input device is a

pressure-sensitive digital
pen

p. 249 – 250 Fig. 5-23 Next

42
 What is a Web cam?

 Web cam is used to capture video and still images,

send e-mail messages with video attachments, add
live images to instant messages, broadcast live
images over the Internet, and to make video
telephone calls on Internet

p. 253 - 254 Fig. 5-28 Net

43
Terminals

What is an automated teller machine (ATM)?

 Self-service banking
machine that connects to a
host computer through a
network

44
 State the types and functions of
output devices

Visual Display Unit (monitor)

Monitors are output devices that visually

convey text, graphics and video information.
Information exists electronically and is
displayed for a temporary period of time.

45
Features of monitors
Size: The dimension of the screen, which is
measured diagonally.

Resolution: How clear or detailed the

screen's output can be. Output is made up of
tiny dots, where one dot equals one pixel. The
more pixels per inch, the clearer the image.

Colour: The number of colours displayed

varies from 6-256 to 64 thousand-16.7M. The
more colours, the smoother the graphic.

46
Cont’d

• Cursor/Pointer: The symbol that shows where

on the screen the user is working.

• Scrolling: This allows text or graphic to be

moved up or down

47
Types of monitors available
CRT - This is short for cathode ray tube monitor
which consists of a screen housed in a plastic or
metal case.
LCD - This is short for liquid crystal display which
is a lightweight thin screen that consumes less
power and space than a CRT monitor; this is
usually found in laptop computers.
Gas plasma - This is a type of monitor technology
that works by creating a matrix of red, green and
blue pixels from plasma bubbles that are turned on
or off by selectively powering them.

48
Printers
• Printers are output devices that
produce text and graphics on a
physical medium such as paper or
transparency film.

• Impact Printers form characters and

graphics on paper by striking a
mechanism against an inked ribbon
that physically contacts the paper.

49
Printers Advantages Disadvantages

Daisy Wheel Printer forms Best Print quality Very Slow

characters on petals like Cannot print graphics
typewriter keys. The Only one font can be used at
a time as changing fonts
petals strike and inked
require changing the daisy
ribbon to produce a wheel
character

Dot-Matrix Printer is an Inexpensive Slow

impact printer that Can Print multi part stationery
produces printed images
when tiny wire pins on a
print head mechanism
strike an inked ribbon. The
ribbon presses against the
paper and creates dots
that form characters and
graphics

50
Impact Printers Cont’d
Printers Advantages Disadvantages

Line Printer is a Very fast Very expensive

high speed impact Prints up to 3000 Very loud
printer that prints lines per minute
an entire line at a
time. Two popular
styles are the
Band/Train printer
and the shuttle
matrix printer

51
Non-Impact Printers
Non- Impact Printers form characters and
graphics without actually striking the paper.
Some spray ink while others use heat and
pressure to create the images. The most
commonly used non-impact printers are:

52
 Printer Advantage Disadvantage
Ink-jet Printer forms  Cannot produce multi
characters and graphics by  Quiet copy
spraying tiny drops of ink onto
 High Quality text  Ink can smear
paper.
and graphics especially if it gets
  wet
 Able to print colour
   
 Faster than impact
  printers  

     

   

 Very fast
Laser Printer creates images  Very expensive
 High quality
using laser beam and
printing  
powdered ink called toner.
 Extremely quiet  
 
 Can print in colour  
 
   
 
 
53
Non-Impact Printer Cont’d
Printer Advantages Disadvantages

Thermal Printer forms

characters using  Quiet  Print tends to fade
chemically treated  Inexpensive over time.
paper. Two types
include thermal wax    
transfer printers and
dye sublimation    
printer.

54
More Output Devices
• Microfilm – can be used to hold tiny images
e.g old newspapers or other historical
documents. These images can only be read by
special viewers

55
• Microfiche- Microform containing
multiple micro images in a rid pattern
equivalent to seven pages of text, and
read by a microfilm reader.

56
• Speakers are devices that produce audio
output, such as music, speech and other
sounds.

• Plotters are sophisticated printers used to

produce high-quality drawings, such as
blueprints, maps, circuit diagrams and
signs. Two categories of plotters are:
- Vector (drum, flatbed)
- Raster (pen, electrostatic)

57
What is a hard copy and a Soft Copy?

Hard copy refers to a paper and permanent

printout of information displayed on the screen

Soft copy refers to the digital copy of

information displayed on a screen or saved
to a storage device.

58
What are the difference between Human
Readable and Machine Readable
• Human Readable: Data that can be
understood by humans. Printers and
monitors produce human- readable
copies.

• Machine Readable: Data that can be

understood by computers. Disc drives and
tape drives produce machine-readable
copies

59
 describe how data are stored
manipulated within the computer;
• Binary Representation
• Computers represent data in the form of
electronic pulses (high and low voltages). When
digitised, data is represented numerically by
way of the binary system, which consists of 1s
and 0s only. In our normal counting, we use 10
digits (0-9) so our method of counting is base
10, also known as the decimal system.

60
Cont’d
• A computer, however, uses base 2 (binary) and
has digits representing values 0 and 1 only.
Since the digit can only take two values, it is a
binary digit (bit). Eight of these digits make a
byte.

61
 interpret the hardware specifications of a
computer system;

What are FireWire ports?

 Connects multiple types of devices that require

faster data transmission speeds
 Allows you to connect up to 63 devices together

62
Expansion Slots

What is an expansion slot?

 An opening, or socket,
on the motherboard
that can hold an
adapter card

Next
63
 What are ports?
 Port connects external devices to system unit

Click to view Web Link,

click Chapter 4, Click Web Link
from left navigation,
then click Ports and Connectors
below Chapter 4

p. 206 Fig. 4-28 Next

64
 What are USB ports?
USB (universal serial bus) port can connect
up to 127 different peripherals together
with a single connector type

p. 208 Next
65
 • What are special-purpose ports?

 Allow users to attach specialized peripherals or

transmit data to wireless devices
 MIDI (Musical
Instrument Digital
Interface) port
 SCSI (small
computer system
interface) port
 IrDA (Infrared Data
Association) port
 Bluetooth port
p. 209 Fig. 4-32 Next
66
 What is a parallel port?

 Connects devices that can

transfer more than one bit at a
time, such as a printer

p. 208 Fig. 4-31 Next

67
• What is a serial port?

 Transmits one bit of data at a

time.

 Connects slow-speed devices,

such as mouse, keyboard,
modem

68
Hard disks/hard drive

This is normally permanently installed and

fixed into the computer. However, there
are
external hard drives available. A hard
drive
can access data much more quickly than
floppy disk drive; most importantly, it can
store much more data.
69
Distinguish between systems
programs and application programs

System software - This software is usually called

an operating system since it controls the
hardware and how all the other software work.
The most commonly used operating system is
Windows made by Microsoft Corporation.

70
Operating System
• This is the most important system software; it
manages the operations of the CPU, controls
the input, output, and storage resources, and
controls computer tasks.
• E.g. Windows, Mac OS (Macintosh), UNIX,
Linux

71
Utility Programs -are used for routine, repetitive
tasks; they are common to all computer system
software.
• e.g Desktop utilities- are available from the taskbar, computer
directory, and recycle bin;

• The menu bar and toolbar-provide utilities to manage files and folders
and for customizing the desktop and windows.

• Disk formatting-removes information from the disk and prepares it for

the operating system.

• Disk defragmentation -increase the speed of access and retrieval from a

disk by rewriting parts of a file to contiguous sectors on a disk.

72
Language Translators are system programs
that translate a program’s language into
machine language so that it can be processed.

• A compiler is a translator that changes the

programming code into machine code.

• An interpreter is a special compiler that

translates and executes each program statement
one at a time

73
• Application software - This software instructs
a computer to carry out or perform a specific
task. Word Processors, Spreadsheet and
databases are all application software.

74
• General purpose software - Programmes
which are designed to cover a single but broad
application scope. Prime examples of this are
programmes such as
• Microsoft Word,
• spreadsheet operations
• database management.

75
• Advantages
• Many persons use it.
• Help is readily available.
• Updates are readily available.

• Disadvantage
• Does not meet the specific needs of the
individual.

76
• Custom-written software –
Programmes which have been created
specifically to meet the needs of a particular
individual or company. It is very similar to you
going to a tailor for him to make a suit to meet
your fashion needs.

77
Advantages
1. You get exactly what you want.
2. Your software runs faster since the code is
optimised to serve your specific purposes only.
3. You are in more control of revisions made to the
software.
Disadvantage
1. Its development is time consuming.
2. Its development is very costly to the individual
or company.
3. Special training is necessary which can also be
expensive and time consuming

78
Customisation of general-purpose
software

• Imagine having an article of clothing which

does not quite suit you. You would take this
garment to the tailor and ask him to modify it to
suit you. Customisation of general-purpose
software is just like this.

79
• Advantages
• Meets the specific needs of the user
• More cost effective than designing custom-
written software

• Disadvantages
• Updates will not be as easily obtainable as with
the general- purpose software.

80
• Integrated Software
A collection of computer programs
designed to work together to handle an
application, either by passing data from one
to another or as components of a single
System.
such as word processing, spread sheets, data-
base management, graphics, and data
communications.

81
• Specialised software packages
• These are programmes designed to give the
user a range of different tools for assistance in
completing a specific or narrow kind of task,
rather than for a broad application area. An
example of this could be a programme
especially designed for preparing and printing
DVD labels.

82
• Advantages
• Makes work easier and more efficient for its
users.

• Disadvantage
• Does not meet the general needs of end users.

83
Operating System Components
• Process management
• Main memory management
• File management
• I/O management
• Device Management
• Security
• User Interface

84
Major Benefits of an OS
• Convenience: facilitates the use of hardware
• Efficiency: ensures that resources are used efficiently
• Security: ensures that resources are not misused
• Communication: enables access to other computers
• Real-Time Support: enables real-time constraints to be met.

85
 ProcessManagement

• A process is a running program

• A process runs sequentially
• A process requires access to system resources
• A process may need to communicate with other
processes.

86
Main Memory Management

• Main memory is the work space for the CPU

• – Consists of a large array of words
• – Each word is addressed by its index in the
array
• The code and data of an executing process
must be resident in main memory

87
 File Management

• A file is an abstract, uniform unit of stored

information
• – Files are organized into directories
• Files can be stored on several kinds of physical
media
• Information access is largely controlled by file
access

88
I/O DeviceManagement

• A computer includes several I/O hardware

devices

• An operating system wraps an I/O subsystem

around each I/O device to:
– Hide the physical aspects of the device
– Provide a uniform software-based means of
accessing I/O devices

89
 Device Management
The device manager monitors every input/out put
device constantly to ensure that the device is
functioning properly.

 The device manager maintains a queue for each

input/output device or one or more queues for
similar input/output devices.

 The device manager controls the different policies

for accessing input/output devices.

90
Security

• Concerned with the protection of:

– Electronically stored and manipulated
information
– Operating system
– Application-level information systems

91
User Interface

• Each operating system has a user interface, a

program that accepts requests from users
(processes) and interprets them for the rest of
the operating system.

92
 Distinguish among multitasking, multiprocessing
and multiprogramming;

• Multiprogramming The ability of a computer to execute

two or more programs at the same time, using one CPU
(or processor).

• Multiprocessing The ability of a computer to execute

programs on two more processors simultaneously.

• Multitasking The concurrent execution (at the same time)

of two or more related tasks.

93
explain the different types of processing
modes

• Batch processing system is one where

data is collected together in a batch before
processing starts e.g. Utility bills
Advantage
1. Jobs can be scheduled for a time when the
computer is not busy
Disadvantage
1. An expensive computer is required and a
well trained staff

94
Real Time processing system- processes data
without significant delay making it always up to
date.
e.g. aeroplane landing control system, ticket
reservation.
Advantage
1.No significant delay for response
Disadvantages
1. The computer must be dedicated solely to the
task.
95
Online Processing- is when computers and
peripheral devices are connected to a main
processor and turned on so that interaction can
take place.

e.g.printers

96
• Time Sharing system- allows many
users to share time on a single
computer.
e.g. banks bank card system.

97
 Distinguish between types of user interface.

• Command-driven interfaces
• Graphical user interface
• Menu-driven interfaces
• Direct manipulation interfaces
• Special purpose interfaces

98
 Command interface
Commands enable the user to quickly and simply
instruct the computer what to do.
• Advantages of command-driven interface
• Faster to use, once you have learnt the
commands.
• Disadvantages of command-driven interface
• It is sometimes difficult to
• remember all the commands.

99
GUI (Graphical User Interface)

This interface makes use of pictorial representations (icons)

and lists of menu items on a screen, which enable the user
to choose commands by pointing to the icons.

Advantages of GUIs
•Fewer command errors
•Reduced typing

Disadvantages of GUIs
•It may consume more screen .
space

100
 Menu Driven
• The user is presented with a choice and, therefore, does not
have to remember any commands. The interface is,
therefore, suitable for beginners and infrequent users.

• Pop-down menu: one that opens immediately below the

position of your mouse (or other pointing device). You move
the cursor downward to go through the items in the menu
list.

• Pop-up menu: any menu list that pops

• up on the screen, on demand, to offer
• you a choice of commands.

101
Cont’d
Advantage of menu-driven interfaces
• The user is presented with a list of options to choose from,
they do not need to remember the commands.

• Disadvantage of menu-driven interface

• Several steps required to issue a command.

102