HUMANS AND

H E A LT H
Natural defences of the human body
• 1. The skin- flexible, waterproof covering, preventing direct entry of
substances and organisms along with regulating body temperature.
• 2. The blood- white blood cells that can engulf bacteria and foreign
proteins, production of antibodies and antitoxins to fight any ill effects.
Clotting mechanisms for broken skin to avoid unwanted entry of microbes.
• 3. Dual systems of control- the heartbeat can be regulated by the medulla
through sense cells relaying messages but the rate can also be altered by
carbon dioxide build up. Why are dual systems important?
• 4. Signals of malfunction- pain or changes in body temperature (fever) or
cold. Inflammation is a sign of wound or infection.
Maintaining natural defences
• This requires healthy eating, exercise, cleanliness, rest and
recreation.
• Sometimes prescribed drugs will be required if a person has a
natural insufficient production or something is not working well.
• With age, some of these functions may not be able to maintain
themselves and will require strict control of diet and medication in
order to.
• A genetic defect can be alleviated with medication and with the
promises of genetic engineering be eliminated eventually.
Diseases
• Diseases caused by other organisms are called pathogens which will
require eliminating the pathogen but also the symptoms of being
infected with a pathogen.
• Microbes causing infection include: viruses, bacteria, fungi and
protoctists.
• Malaria is caused by a protoctists, Plasmodium
• Athletes foot, thrush and ringworm are caused by fungus, Candida
albicans
The entrance of pathogens to the body
• 1. Skin- even on undamaged skin, bacteria an viruses can get in. there are others
that can infect the skin due to exposed wounds eg Staphylococcus bacteria can
turn them septic or cause boils.
• 2. Respiratory system- through droplets of moisture , breathing in these can spread
infection ie droplet infection. Eg Influenza, common cold.
• 3. Food or water- food poisoning caused by Salmonella, bacteria, as a result of
ingesting spoilt food. Poliomyelitis, virus transmitted in water can cause polio.
Cholera is also transmitted in water by a bacteria.
• 4. Vectors- a vector is an organism that transmits a pathogen to the host. Eg
Malaria- plasmodium living in the salivary glands of mosquitoes transmitted as
they feed on humans.
• 5. Sexual intercourse- veneral diseases
Blood Clotting
• Prevents entry of pathogens by covering any openings on the skin. Platelets
will stick together along with the edges of the opening to form a plug. For
small wounds this can stop bleeding. However, for larger wounds, will need
a larger barrier and blood plasma has 13 blood clotting factors.
• If any of these factors are genetically affected the person will not be able to
allow blood clotting to function effectively ie haemophilia
• Prothrombin and fibrinogen ( BCF) are soluble proteins in blood plasma.
When there is a wound the tissue will release thromboplastin converting
prothrombin to thrombin. Thrombin acts on fibrinogen to convert it to
fibrin. Fibrin is insoluble and will form fibres over the wound for platelets to
stick to.
Bacteria releases fever causing toxins
• Once a pathogen has entered the body it will take time for the
colony to become large enough to have an effect, this is called the
incubation period.
• If the pathogen survives this period without the immune system
overcoming it in time symptoms will develop usually as a result of
dead bacteria or substances released by living bacteria.
• These may affect the hypothalamus of the brain which regulates
body temperature causing an elevation ie fever.
• This is only one symptom but each pathogen produces its own
symptoms.
Antibodies
• White blood cells are actively working against this invader. They recognize this as
the invading pathogen produces chemicals foreign to the cells in the host body.
This is called antigens.
• White blood cells produce a chemical called, antibodies, which bind to the
antigens complimentarily. Binding can cause many effects, one of which is
causing the antigens affected by antibodies to clump together. This allows the
white blood cells to destroy them by phagocytosis.
• In the time frame it takes the immune system to identify the foreign chemical,
produce antibodies and engulf the pathogen can have time to breed and spread.
• If the same antigen infects the body, the body has already recognized this
antigen and has an immune response.
Immune responses
• The body is familiar with this antigen and will rapidly produce
antibodies in an attempt to destroy the pathogen.
• There are two ways one can develop this immunity.
• Active immunity- having the disease, developing immunity.
• Vaccination – which can be a weakened form of the virus so the body
develops an immune response to it.
• Passive immunity- the antibodies are transferred straight to your body eg
breast milk. Some vaccinations also contain antibodies attained from an
organism that was infected with the pathogen. Eg anti-tetanus from tetanus
antibodies made by a horse.
• Passive immunity does not last as long as active immunity, Why?
Loss of immunity cells
• The immune system defends the body from all pathogens, what
happens if the immune system is destroyed?
• AIDS- Autoimmune Deficiency Syndrome is breaks down the
immune system.
• AIDS is caused when someone develops HIV –Human
Immunodeficiency Virus.
HIV-AIDS
• Symptoms develop over varying timeframes depending on the
individual. Some warning signs are:
• prolonged fevers
• Severe weight loss without reasoning
• Constant fatigue
• Swollen glands in neck, armpit and groin
• Persistent skin rashes/spots
• White coatings and patches on the tongue
• Diarrhea and loss of appetite for longer than a month.
• Cancers of the lymph
How does the virus replicate
• Viruses are unique, they cannot grow or reproduce without infecting a host
cell to do so.
• They are made up of a few proteins, enzymes and genes to carry
instructions for making more viruses which may be enclosed in a
membrane.
• It is a RNA virus but it has to match the host material for replication. So it
converts from RNA to DNA using enzymes. The HIV RNA will be copied now
as DNA in the host cell. Therefore, whenever the cell divides the viral DNA
also replicates.
• This may remain latent for some time therefore, HIV will not be detected
but when it does, it will be easily detected.
Action of AIDS
• The virus can only enter certain cells in the body, T cells which are
helper cells to support cells in the immune system to fight infection.
• The virus will kill the T cells and then proceed to enter phagocytes
and other immune cells. It can also infect brain cells directly.
Infection of HIV
• Infection occurs by
• Sexual contact with n infected person
• Transfusing blood from an infected person to another.
• Infected needles being used ( drug abusers sharing needles)
• An infected mother to baby
• Multiple sexual partners

• It is not spread by
• Blood donations
• Social contact
Controlling
• There is no known cure, however, levels of infection can be
controlled.
• 1.Preventing the spread of the disease-
• keeping one sexual partner
• Refraining from intercourse with someone who has had many sexual
partners
• Using a condom
• Testing before blood transfusions (normal practice)
• Sterile needles for all injections
• Infected mothers should avoid pregnancy.
Containing
• 2. Containing the disease from spreading.
• Early detection with frequent blood test since symptoms may take long to
appear.
• Vaccines are not successful yet due to the high mutation rate.
• AZT is a dug developed to block the enzyme that allows viral RNA to be
converted to DNA.

• AIDS progression speeds up if:

• The patient is exposed to other infectious agents eg syphilis
• Slowing down the immune system with other drugs such as corticosteroids or
antibiotics, drugs, smoking, inadequate nutrition.
Herpes genitalis
• This is another sexually transmitted disease spread by contaminated
hands or oral contact causing sores on the lips and genitals 2-20
days after infection.
• In new born births can result in infection to the new born and in
severe cases cause death or brain damage.
• Herpes is also involved in the development of cervical cancer.
Gonnorrhea
• Caused by Neisseria gonorrhoeae, bacteria.
• In a male affects the urethra 2-10 days after infection with pus
discharge and burning sensation when urinating that can spread to
the prostate and testes if undetected.
• In females initial infection affects the cervix, untreated, affects the
fallopian tubes, blocking them, sterilizing the female as well.
• The disease can spread in the blood and requires antibiotics
• Chlamydia can also cause similar effects along with infertility by a
bacteria.
Syphilis
• Is caused by a bacterium Treponema pallidum, transmitted by sexual
intercourse (acquired) and can be passed from mother to unborn child.
• Acquired syphilis develop has follows:
• Primary syphilis takes 3 weeks to develop and forms hard ulcers at site of
infection lasting for a month.
• Secondary syphilis- develops after 2-4 months in the form of a rash or red
lesions over two years.
• Tertiary syphilis- has no symptoms but can survive the rest of the persons life
causing effects to the brain and heart

• Untreated pregnant women can have a miscarriage, still birth or death at birth.