UNIT 6 SOLID STATE PHYSICS

LECTURE 1

Prof. Reji Thomas DRC-DRD

PHY109 ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Unit 1 Electromagnetic theory

Unit 2 Lasers
Unit 3 Fiber optics
MTE
Unit 4 Quantum mechanics
Unit 5 Waves
Unit 6 Solid state physics
ETE

Prof. Reji Thomas DRC-DRD

Find the Maxwell equation that is derived from
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction?

a) Div(B) = 0
b) Div(D) = 
c) Curl(E) = -∂B/∂t
d) Curl(H) = J+∂D/∂t
We know that Maxwell arranged all existing electrostatic and
magnetostatic laws into four electromagnetic differential equations
with a terms he ‘discovered’ . Where is that term in the following 4
Maxwell’s equations?

A)

B)

C)

B)
The divergence of the magnetic field, according to 2nd Maxwell's
equation is equal to zero. What does this mean?

a) An external magnetic field has no effect on the motion of a

charged particle.
b)  Electric charges (i.e. monopoles) do not exist.
c)  Magnetic charges (i.e. monopoles) do not exist.
d)  changing magnetic field does not induce an electric field.
Populations of energy levels is nothing but the total number of
atoms occupying the particular Energy level (E). The ratio of
populations varies exponentially with the energy difference, and the
greater the level difference the smaller the population in the E2
level. Which distribution law describe ratio of N2/N1?

a) Fermi-Dirac
b) Bose-Einstein
c) Maxwell
d) Boltzmann

Prof. Reji Thomas DRC-DRD

What is the life time of an excited atom in the metastable
state?

a) Millisecond
b) micro second
c) nano second
d) 100 s
Characteristics of laser beam are

a) Highly directional
b) Highly intense
c) Highly monochromatic
d) All of the above
Hologram is the result of

a) interference of object and reference beam

b) polarization of the object and reference beam
c) diffraction of the object and reference beam
d) both (a) and (b)
The inner portion of the fiber cable is called

a) Cladding
b) Coating
c) Inner conductor
d) Core
Hologram contains the information about..

a) Amplitude of the object

b) Phase of the object
c) Both amplitude and phase of the object
d) None of these

Prof. Reji Thomas DRC-DRD

The Optical resonating cavity in a laser helps to

a) Create population inversion

b) Create an amplified, coherent laser beam
c) Create three-level laser system
d) None of these

Prof. Reji Thomas DRC-DRD

What is the principle of fiber optical communication?

a) Frequency modulation
b) Population inversion
c) Total internal reflection
d) Doppler Effect

Prof. Reji Thomas DRC-DRD

 UNIT 6: Solid state physics

Syllabus

Free electron theory (Introduction), diffusion and drift current (qualitative);

Fermi energy, Fermi-Dirac distribution function;
Semiconductors and insulators, Fermi level for intrinsic and extrinsic
semiconductors;
Band theory of solids -formation of allowed and forbidden energy bands,
Concept of effective mass -electrons and holes, Direct and indirect band gap
semiconductors;
Hall effect (with derivation);

Prof. Reji Thomas DRC-DRD

 LECTURE SCHEDULE
Lecture 1 April 30: Classical Free electron theory, diffusion and drift current for metals
Stage 1 Classical mechanics applied
Tutorial 12: May. 4 CA1 presentation for Group 2
CA3-Class test 2: May 4th 2022 10-11 AM
Tutorial 13: May 4 CA1 presentation for Group 1
Stage 2
Lecture 2 May 6: Quantum Free electron theory, Fermi energy, Fermi-Dirac
distribution, Fermions
Stage 3
Quantum mechanics applied
Lecture 3 May 7 : Band theory of solids formation of allowed and forbidden energy
bands
electron lattice interaction considered with quantum mechanics
Tutorial 9: May 11 Tutorial Gr.2
Lecture 4 May 11: Semiconductors and insulators, Fermi level for intrinsic and
extrinsic semiconductor,
Tutorial 9: May 12 Tutorial Gr.2
Lecture 5 May. 13: Concept of effective mass - electrons and holes, direct and indirect
band gap semiconductors
Lecture 6 May. 18 Hall effect (with derivation)
Prof. Reji Thomas DRC-DRD
 Introduction
STATES OF MATTER

SOLID Liquid Gas Plasma

Amorphous 1. Metal ( > 103S/cm)

2. Insulator ( < 10-8S/cm)
3. Semiconductor (10-8S/cm <  < 103S/cm
Crystalline
Conductivity of metal explained soon after the discovery of electron…
Thomson in 1897 when he was studying the properties of cathode ray.  J.
J. Thomson won Nobel Prize in 1906 for discovering the elementary particle
electron.
Properties of metals

1. Ohm’s law (1827): In steady state, current density J is proportional to the

applied electric field E

 Is the electrical conductivity

2. At low temperature resistivity  ( ) is proportional to the fifth

power of absolute temperature

3. For most of the metal, resistivity is inversely proportional to the

pressure

Prof. Reji Thomas DRC-DRD

 4. Metals posses high thermal conductivity (K) and electrical conductivity
() and; and the ratio of these conductivities is directly proportional to the
absolute temperature

=𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 Wiedemann-Franz Law
𝐊𝐓

5 . Metals have positive temperature coefficient of resistivity.. Resistance increases

with temperature.. Resistance of certain metals vanishes at absolute temperature and
they exhibit the phenomenon of super conductivity ( 1911 ,Kamerlingh Onnes)

All these were known.. The question ‘why’ was not answered until JJ
Thomson discovered electron in 1897..

See superconductivity in 5, it came at a later stage and explained even much

later in 1950 s.. Cooper pairs

Prof. Reji Thomas DRC-DRD

Solid state Physics Developed in three stages

Stage 1. Classical free electron theory: Free electron gas

Drude and Lorentz developed this theory in 1990’s. According to this theory,
the metals containing free electrons obey the laws of classical mechanics

Stage 2: The quantum Free Electron theory: Free electron Fermi gas

Drude- Sommerfeld developed this theory during 1928. according to this theory,
free electrons obey quantum laws

Stage 3: The Band theory of solid: Nearly free electron theory

Bloch developed this theory in 1928. According to this theory, the free electrons
interaction with solid lattice considered. The concept of hole, origin of band gap and
effective mass of electron are the special features of Bloch theory of metal.
Prof. Reji Thomas DRC-DRD
 1. Classical free electron theory
Free electron gas

We will see how they explained many properties of metals prior to Quantum
mechanics.. In fact QM was getting a shape during that period 

Lorentz - Drude Theory: known as the classical free electron theory

Ion cores of atoms immobile (core electrons remain

tightly bound to nucleus); valence electrons are loosely
bound and in metal can wander around the entire metal
– form the conduction electrons (referred from now on
simply as electrons.)

Electrons as gas molecules or electron gas and container is the metal

lattice made of nucleus and core electrons- immobile positive ions
 Kinetic Theory of Gases

1. Every gas consists of extremely small particles known as molecules. The

molecules of a given gas are all identical but are different from those of
another gas.
2. The molecules of a gas are identical spherical, rigid and perfectly elastic
point masses.
3. Their molecular size is negligible in comparison to intermolecular distance
(10-9 m).
4. The speed of gas molecules lies between zero and infinity (very high
speed).
5. The distance covered by the molecules between two successive collisions is
known as free path and mean of all free path is known as mean free path.
6. The number of collision per unit volume in a gas remains constant.
7. No attractive or repulsive force acts between gas molecules.
8. Gravitational attraction between molecules is ineffective due to small
masses and very high speed of molecules
Prof. Reji Thomas DRC-DRD
Classical free electron theory
ASSUMPTION

1. Between collisions electrons move in straight line

2. Effect of electron-electron interaction is ignored
3. Effect of electron-ion interaction is ignored
4. Mean free time between collisions is independent of electron’s position or
velocity
5. Electrons achieve thermal equilibrium by collisions with lattice – they
emerge after collision at a random direction with speed appropriate to the
temperature of the region where collision happened – the hotter the
region; the higher the speed of the emerging electrons
6. Applied kinetic theory of gas to the electron gas in metal. Electrons can
be assigned with mean free path , mean collision time , and average
drift velocity vd

Prof. Reji Thomas DRC-DRD

1. Electrical conductivity, Drift current

If we apply an electric field E to a metal, the force F experience by an

electron of charge e and mass m is given by

Eq.1

Where a is the acceleration, But is Eq.2

If we consider the kinetic theory of gas, the electrons are accelerated between the
collision only, then from Eq.2 we get
Eq.3

Because the velocity at the beginning of the path is zero, and after a
time  is
Eq.4
 The average velocity is called the drift velocity vd of electron
Eq.5

But, where ‘n’ is the number electron per unit volume

of the metal.
= E Eq.6a

drift Current density, Ohm’s Law

Eq.6 1827

=𝑣 
= Substitute for  in Equation 6 we get Eq.7

But mean free path 

Prof. Reji Thomas DRC-DRD

5. Temperature dependence of Electrical conductivity

Lorentz applied kinetic theory of gas to Drude’s free electron gas

3 𝑘𝑇
𝑚𝑣= Eq.8
𝑣

Use equation 8 in Equation 7 Eq.9

 This equation (Eqn.9) explained the decrease of electrical

conductivity of metal with increase in temperature

 Equation 6a is the relation connecting drift current with

conductivity and electric field.. Nothing but Ohm’s law

Prof. Reji Thomas DRC-DRD

 4. Thermal conductivity
 Thermal conduction is the transfer of heat (internal energy) by microscopic
collisions of particles and movement of electrons within a body.
 The law of heat conduction, also known as Fourier's law (1822) , like electrical
conduction, also know known as Ohm’s Law
 So thermal conductivity, K is the proportionality constant in Fourier’s Law, like
electrical conductivity,  we saw in Ohm’s Law

Net transfer of heat energy, Q from the plane ‘P1’ at

temperature T1 to ‘P2‘ at temperature T2 through the plane
‘P’ per unit area and unit time is

Eqn.(a)

Where K is the thermal conductivity of metal and  the mean free path. ( distance
between P1 to P or P to P2) . Let see whether we can find relation for K like we did
for  Prof. Reji Thomas DRC-DRD
IMP: We assume electrons thermalize at every collision. So the extra
heat energy carried by an electrons is annihilated at every collision
If ‘n’ is the total number of electron per unit volume in the metal.. Then ‘n/6’
electrons moving in moving in a particular direction say + y (P2 to P1)as in
figure. Same number will be moving in the –y direction (P1to P2)

Energy of each electron, 1/2 mv2 = 3/2 kT, where k is the

Boltzmann's const. and T is the temperature

Heat transfer rate from P1 to P2 =

Heat transfer rate from P2 to P1 =

Prof. Reji Thomas DRC-DRD

4. Thermal conductivity
Net transfer of energy from P1 to P2 through P

Eqn.(b) Eqn.(a)

Relation for the thermal conductivity of a metal

This relation explain the thermal conductivity difference between metals

 4. Wiedemann-Franz law Ratio of K to 

We already have the relation for thermal conductivity and electrical conductivity
using classical free electron theory ( Drude-Lorentz theory)

See the velocity (v) and mean free path () in both the relations, it hold good for
both the conductivities as between the collisions of electrons

Take the ratio

2.23 x 10-8
T

K/T is having same value at all temperature. Thus Weidemann-Franz law

verified with classical free electron theory
Prof. Reji Thomas DRC-DRD
Classical free electron theory and
properties of metal

1. We found a relation for Drift current and that is

nothing but Ohm’s law (1827)
2. Found out the relation for electrical conductivity
3. Found out a relation for thermal conductivity, that is
Fourier’s Law (1822)
4. Proved Weidemann-Franz law (1853)
Nothing more it could give us. Failed miserably in explaining
many other properties of metals and solid… we have to move
on to Quantum free electron theory and eventually Block
theorem to unveil physics behind solid state materials

Prof. Reji Thomas DRC-DRD

 DIFFUSION CURRENT

Diffusion currents : charge moving from higher concentration to

lower concentration.

Can diffusion current occur in conductor?

Diffusion currents occur in metals. There are also contact potentials (charge
redistribution from metals with a high Fermi energy to those with a lower Fermi
energy). The balance of these currents is temperature-sensitive, which gives us
the property known as the Seebeck effect, and useful for devices called
thermocouples.

But we have to learn Fermi level and quantum free electron theory

Prof. Reji Thomas DRC-DRD

Free electron theory is based on which of the following assumption?

(a) Electrons are freely moving only at the centre of the solid.
(b) Electrons are freely moving through entire the solid.
(c) Electrons can move freely only at the top surface of the solid.
(d) Electrons can move freely only along the surfaces of the solid.
 

Prof. Reji Thomas DRC-DRD

What is true regarding diffusion current?

(a) Diffusion current is caused because of random movement of

electrons and holes within the solid
(b) Diffusion currently is caused due to the removal of electrons in
solid when power supply is connected
(c) Diffusion current is passing of electrons and holes through
potential barrier
(d) Diffusion current is caused because of unbalanced distribution of
concentration of electrons or holes within the solid

Prof. Reji Thomas DRC-DRD

Drift current is the conduction current due to the movement of
charges when an electric field is applied? State True or False..

(a) TRUE
(b) FALSE

Prof. Reji Thomas DRC-DRD

Solids with high value of conductivity are called:

(a) Metals
(b) Nonmetal
(c) Insulator
(d) Semi conductor

Prof. Reji Thomas DRC-DRD

The free electron theory could not explain which of the
following properties?
(a) Electrical and thermal conductivity of metals
(b) Thermal and thermal conductivity of non-metal
(c) Ferromagnetism
(d) Ohm’s law

Prof. Reji Thomas DRC-DRD

 LECTURE SCHEDULE
Lecture 1 April 30: Classical Free electron theory, diffusion and drift current for
Stage 1 metals
Classical mechanics applied
Tutorial 12: May. 4 CA1 presentation for Group 2
CA3-Class test 2: May 4th 2022 10-11 AM
Tutorial 13: May 4 CA1 presentation for Group 1

Lecture 2 May 6: Quantum Free electron theory, Fermi energy, Fermi-Dirac

Stage 2
Lecture 3 May 7 :
Stage 3
Tutorial 9: May 11
Lecture 4 May 11:
Tutorial 9: May 12
Lecture 5 May. 13:
Lecture 6 May. 18
Prof. Reji Thomas DRC-DRD
distribution, Fermions
Quantum mechanics applied
Band theory of solids formation of allowed and forbidden energy
bands
electron lattice interaction considered with quantum mechanics
Tutorial Gr.2
Semiconductors and insulators, Fermi level for intrinsic and
extrinsic semiconductor,
Tutorial Gr.2
Concept of effective mass - electrons and holes, direct and indirect
band gap semiconductors
Hall effect (with derivation)