DISSERTATION ON:

SPACE FILLING CURVE

BANACH’S PRINCIPLE OF CONTRACTION

MAPPINGS AND IT’S APPLICATIONS

ARZELA-ASCOLI THEOREM
SPACE-FILLING
CURVE
THEOREM:-

 LET I = [0,1]. THERE EXISTS A CONTINUOUS

MAP f : I  I 2 WHOSE IMAGE FILLS UP
THE ENTIRE SQUARE I 2 .
KEY POINTS OF THE PROOF:-
 Step 1:-
Describe a particular operation on paths.
 Step 2:-

Define a sequence of functions

fn : I  I 2
 Step 3:-
The sequence of functions (fn ) is a cauchy
sequence under ƿ.
 Step 4:-

f is surjective.
 STEP 1

 THE OPERATION REPLACES THE PATH g BY THE PATH g/ .

STEP 2
DEFINE THE SEQUENCE OF FUNCTIONS:-
fn : I  I 2
f0

Letting a=0 and b=1

f1

f2
f3
 STEP 3
Let d (x,y) denote the square metric on R2 .

d (x,y) = max { |x1 – y1| , |x2 – y2| }

Let ƿ denote the corresponding sup

metric on C ( I , I2)

Ƿ( f , g) = sup{ d ( f(t), g(t)) | t € I }.

I2 is closed in R2, hence it is complete in the
square metric; then C ( I , I2) is complete in
the metric ƿ.
CLAIM:- The sequence of functions (fn) is a
cauchy sequence under ƿ.
To Prove:- Examine what happens when we pass from fn to
fn+1 . Each of the small triangular paths that make up f n
lies in a square of edge length 1/2 n.
 To prove this fact, let us examine what happens when
we pass from fn to fn+1 .
Therefore, in the square metric on I2, the distance
between fn(t) and fn+1(t) is at most 1/2n. As a result, ƿ(fn
,fn+1) <= 1/2n. It follows that (fn) is a Cauchy sequence,
since

Ƿ( fn , fn+m ) ≤ 1/2n + 1/2n+1 + ………+ 1/2n+m-1 < 2/2n for all n and
m.
Step 4:-
Because C ( I , I2) is complete, the
sequence fn converges to a continuous function
f : I  I2 .
We prove that f is surjective.
Let x be a point of I2 ; we show that x
belongs to f (I). First we note that, given n, the path
fn comes within a distance of 1/2n of the point x. For
the path fn touches each of the little squares of edge
length 1/2n into which we have divided i2.
Using this fact, we shall prove that, given
ɛ > 0, the ɛ-neighborhood of x intersects f (I). Choose
N large enough that
Ƿ (fN ,f ) < ɛ/2 and 1/2N < ɛ/2.
By the result of the previous paragraph, there is
a point t0 € I such that
d ( x , fN(t0) ) ≤ 1/2N.
Then since d ( fN(t) , f(t) ) < ɛ/2 for all t, it
follows that
d ( x , f(t 0)) < ɛ,
so the ɛ-neighborhood of x intersects f(I).
It follows that x belongs to the closure
of f(I). But I is compact, so f(I) is compact and
is therefore closed. Hence x lies in f(I), as
desired.

( proved )
Banach’s principle of contraction mappings and it’s applications.
 Theorem ( Banach’s Principle of
Contraction Mappings ) :-

Let (X , d) be a complete metric space.

Then every contraction map f on X has a
unique fixed point, i.e., the equation f(x)
= x has a unique solution for x.
APPLICATIONS OF BANACH’S FIXED
POINT THEOREM:-

Picard’s theorem:-
Let D be a nonempty open subset of the Euclidean plane
R2 , f : D  R be a continuous map which satisfies a Lipschitz
condition with respect to the second variable, i.e., | f(x, y1) - f(x, y2)
| ≤ k | y1 - y2 | … (1)
for all (x, y1), (x, y2) € D and for some k > 0, and let (x0, y0) €
D.
Then the differential equation = f(x, y) … (2)
has a unique solution y = g(x) in the interval [x0 - c , x0 + c], for
a suitable c > 0, such that the boundary condition g(x0) = y0 is
satisfied .
 Implicit Function Theorem
Let U ⊆ R2 be open and f : U  R have continuous
partial derivatives, fx and fy on U. Assume that (x0 , y0)
€ U is such that f(x0 , y0) = 0 and
that (x0 , y0) ≠ 0.

Then there exists an ɛ > 0

and a function g : (x0 - ɛ , x0 + ɛ)  R such that the
following hold:
 f( x, g(x)) = 0 for all x € (x 0 - ɛ , x0 + ɛ)
g is differentiable on its domain with

ǵ(x) = -
ARZELA-ASCOLI THEOREM
Theorem ( Arzela-Ascoli
Theorem ):-

Let X be a compact metric space.

Suppose ɸ ≠ A ⊆ C(X) is closed and
bounded ( metric of C(X) being d ∞ ).
Then A is compact iff A is
equicontinuous.
THANK YOU
IT IS AN APPLICATION OF THE
COMPLETENESS OF THE
METRIC SPACE C(X,Y) IN THE
UNIFORM METRIC WHEN Y IS
COMPLETE.
THEOREM:-

LET I = [0,1]. THERE EXISTS A CONTINUOUS MAP

f : I  I 2 WHOSE IMAGE FILLS UP THE ENTIRE
SQUARE I 2 .
Proof:

STEP 1:-

WE SHALL CONSTRUCT THE MAP f AS THE LIMIT

OF A SEQUENCE OF CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS fn
THE OPERATION REPLACES THE PATH g BY THE
PATH g/
OPERATION ON PATHS:-
 At the general step, fn is a path made up of 4n triangular paths of the type considered in step 1, each lying in a square of length 1/2 n. The
function fn+1 is obtained by applying the operation of step 1 to these triangular paths, replacing each one by four smaller triangular paths.
Contraction Mapping & Lipschitz Condition :-

Let (X,d) be a metric space and f : (X,d)  (X,d) be a

function .
Then f is said to
a) be a weak contraction mapping if
d( f(x) , f(y)) < d(x,y) , for all x , y € X with x ≠ y.

b) satisfy Lipschitz condition with a Lipschitz constant t,

where t is a positive real number, if
d(f(x) , f(y)) ≤ td(x,y), for all x , y € X.

c) be a contraction mapping on (X,d) if there exists a real

number t with 0<t<1 such that d( f(x) , f(y)) ≤ td(x,y), for all x, y €
X, i.e. when f satisfies Lipschitz condition with lipschitz constant t
such that 0 < t < 1.
Proof:-
Let f : (X, d)  (X, d) be a contraction map. ( X ,
d) is a complete metric space.

There exists t with 0 < t < 1 such that d( f(x),

f(y) ) ≤ t. d(x,y), for all x, y € X.

Let x € X.

By iteration method we determine a sequence of

points {xn} in X by letting x1 = f(x), x2 = f(x1) =
f2(x), …, xn = f(xn-1) = fn(x), …
CLAIM:- { xn } is a Cauchy sequence in
(X, d).
for m > n we have :
d(xn, xm) = d (fn(x), fm(x) ) < t . d( fn-1(x), fm-1(x) )
≤ t2 d( fn-2(x), fm-2(x)) ≤ … ≤ tn d(x, fm-n(x) ) = tn d(x, xm-n)
≤ tn[d(x, x1 ) + d(x1 , x2) + … + d(xm-n-1, xm-n)]
= tn[d(x, x1) + d(f(x), f2(x)) + … + d( fm-n-1(x), fm-
n
(x))]
≤ tn[d(x, x1) + t d(x, f(x)) + … + tm-n-1 d(x, f(x))]
= tn d(x, x1) [1 + t + t2 + … + tm-n-1]
< tn d(x, x1) [1 + t + … + tm-n-1 + tm-n + …]
=tn d(x , x1) /(1-t) (since 0 < t < 1) = a (say) .
 Again since 0 < t < 1 , a  0 as n  ∞
(and hence m  ∞ as well) .
Thus d(xn , xm)  0 as m , n ∞ .

the sequence { xn } is Cauchy in (X, d)

As (X, d) is complete, the sequence { xn } converges to
some point x0 (say) in X . We show that x0 is a fixed point
of f . In fact, since f is continuous,

f(x0) = f( limn∞ xn ) = limn∞ f(xn) = limn∞ xn+1 = x0.

If possible ,
let f have two distinct fixed points x 0 and y0
so that f( x0 ) = x0 and
f( y0 ) = y0 .
As x0 ≠ y0 , d(x0, y0) > 0 .
Now , d(x0 , y0 ) = d( f(x0) , f(y0))
≤ td( x0 , y0 ) < d(x0, y0) , i. e ., d(x0, y0)
< d(x0, y0) ,
which is impossible .
Thus f has a unique fixed point .
(proved)
Equicontinuous :-
Let X and Y be metric spaces and
a € X. A family  of functions from
X to Y is said to be equicontinuous at
a if for any ɛ > 0 there exists a δ > 0
such that
d(x, a) < δ  d( f(x), f(a)) < ɛ
for all f € Â
Uniformly Equicontinuous:-
 We say that  is uniformly
equicontinuous on X if for any given
ɛ > 0, there exists a δ > 0 such that
d(x1,x2) < δ  d( f(x1) , f(x2)) < ɛ

for all f € Â
Results:-
• Ifa metric space is compact, then it is
totally bounded.

• LetX be a compact metric space and Â

be a family of equicontinuous functions
from X to another metric space Y. Then
 is uniformly equicontinuous family.

• Normed linear space (B(X), || ||∞) is

complete.
Proof:-
Let ɛ > 0.
Since A is compact, there exists f1, f2, f3, …….,fn € A such that
A ⊆ ∪j B( fj , ɛ/3) where j = 1,2,…..n.
We consider B = { f1, f2, f3,………..fn}.
Then B is equicontinuous.
Hence, there exists δ > 0 such that x,y € X
And d(x,y) < δ  |fj(x) – fj(y)| < ɛ/3
for all j= 1,2,3,…..n.
Consider f € A, x,y € X with d(x,y) < δ
There exists some fj € B such that || f – fj ||∞ < ɛ/3
[f €A]
Then,
|f(x) – f(y)| ≤ |f(x) – fj(x)| + |fj(x) – fj(y)| + |fj(y) – f(y)|
≤ ɛ/3 + ɛ/3 + ɛ/3 = ɛ
Therefore, A is equicontinuous.
Conversely,
Let A be equicontinuous.
At ɛ > 0, there exists δ > 0 such that for all
x,y € X with d(x,y) < δ.
We have, |f(x) – f(y)| < ɛ/3, for all f € A

Since, X is compact, there exists x1, x2, x3, …………..xn €

X , such that
X ⊆ ∪i B(xj,δ) where j= 1,2,……n.
For metric spaces A is compact  A is complete and
totally bounded.
We know that C(X) is complete and A is bounded, then
A is complete.
 We shall prove that A is totally bounded .
We consider a map from A  Rn such that
f € A,
f  (f(x1),f(x2),f(x3),…………,f(xn)) € Rn
and ḟ = (f(x1),f(x2),f(x3),…………,f(xn))
We consider the metric space (Rn , d∞)
And also the set  = { ḟ : f € A } ⊆ (Rn , d∞)
We define ,
|| ḟ ||∞ =max {|f(x1)|, |f(x2)|,………..,|f(xn)|} ≤ || f ||∞
(because f is a large collection)
Which implies
d ( ḟ , ģ ) ≤ d(f,g)

Therefore, Â is closed and bounded.

Also, every bounded set is totally bounded in Rn.
Which implies that  is compact.
Since  is totally bounded, there exists ḟ1, ḟ2, ḟ3,………,ḟn € Â
such that
 ⊆ ∪i B( ḟj , ɛ/3) where j= 1,2,…….m.
Claim A ⊆ ∪i B( fj , ɛ) where j= 1,2,………m.
Let f € A, there exists j € { 1,2……..m} such that || ḟ - ḟj || < ɛ/3.
Let x € X, there exists k € { 1,2,………m }
such that d (x , xk ) < δ
|f(x) – f(xk)| < ɛ/3 for all f € A
in particular, | fj(x) – fj(xk)| < ɛ/3
Now ,
|f(x) – fj(x)| ≤ |f(x) – f(xk)| + |f(xk) - fj(xk)| + | fj(xk) – fj(x)|
≤ ɛ/3 + ɛ/3 + ɛ/3 = ɛ
[ |f(xk) – fj(xk)| ≤ || ḟ - ḟj || < ɛ/3]
Therefore , A ⊆ ∪iB(fj , ɛ), where j = 1,2,…….m
A is totally bounded.
A is compact.
THANK YOU