The human respiratory system consists of two parts - the upper respiratory tract and lower respiratory tract. The upper tract includes the nose, nasal cavity, pharynx and larynx. The lower tract includes the trachea, bronchi and lungs. Air enters the nose and is conducted through the pharynx, larynx, trachea and bronchi into the lungs. In the lungs, gas exchange occurs between the air in the alveoli and blood in the pulmonary capillaries. The respiratory system works to oxygenate blood and remove carbon dioxide through the process of breathing.
The human respiratory system consists of two parts - the upper respiratory tract and lower respiratory tract. The upper tract includes the nose, nasal cavity, pharynx and larynx. The lower tract includes the trachea, bronchi and lungs. Air enters the nose and is conducted through the pharynx, larynx, trachea and bronchi into the lungs. In the lungs, gas exchange occurs between the air in the alveoli and blood in the pulmonary capillaries. The respiratory system works to oxygenate blood and remove carbon dioxide through the process of breathing.
The human respiratory system consists of two parts - the upper respiratory tract and lower respiratory tract. The upper tract includes the nose, nasal cavity, pharynx and larynx. The lower tract includes the trachea, bronchi and lungs. Air enters the nose and is conducted through the pharynx, larynx, trachea and bronchi into the lungs. In the lungs, gas exchange occurs between the air in the alveoli and blood in the pulmonary capillaries. The respiratory system works to oxygenate blood and remove carbon dioxide through the process of breathing.
pharynx (throat), larynx (voice box), trachea (windpipe), bronchi, and lungs. Structurally, the respiratory system consists of two parts: 1. The upper respiratory system includes the nose, nasal cavity, pharynx and associated structures. 2. The lower respiratory system includes the larynx, trachea, bronchi and lungs. 1. The conducting zone consists of a series of interconnecting cavities and tubes both outside and within the lungs. These include the nose, nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and terminal bronchioles. Their function is to filter, warm, and moisten air and conduct it into the lungs 2. The respiratory zone consists of tubes and tissues within the lungs where gas exchange occurs. These include the respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs and alveoli. (Gas exchange occur in these zone) Respiratory mucosa • It is a layer of pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelial cells that secrete mucus. • Found in nose, sinuses, pharynx, larynx and trachea • Mucus can trap contaminants – Cilia move mucus up towards mouth NOSE
• It provides an entrance for air in which air is
filtered by hairs inside the nostrils. • It has two portions : the external and internal. – External nares (choanae) - opening to exterior – Internal nares opening to pharynx PARANASAL SINUSES • Four bones of the skull contain paired air spaces called the paranasal sinuses - frontal, ethmoidal, sphenoidal, maxillary. • Add resonance to voice. • Communicate with the nasal cavity by ducts. • Lined by pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium. PHARYN • The pharynx X is a funnel-shaped tube about 13 cm long that starts at the internal nares and extends to the level of the cricoid cartilage, the most inferior cartilage of the larynx. • The pharynx lies just posterior to the nasal and oral cavities, superior to the larynx, and anterior to the cervical vertebrae. • It is a common passageway for air and food. • Pharynx is divided into three regions – Nasopharynx - uppermost portion – Oropharynx - middle portion – Laryngopharynx - lowermost portion Nasopharynx • Superior-most region of the pharynx. • Covered with pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium. • Location: – posterior to the nasal cavity – superior to the soft palate. – lateral walls of the nasopharynx connect to the auditory/eustachian tubes which open into middle ear. • Normally, only air passes through. • Material from the oral cavity and oropharynx is typically blocked from entering the nasopharynx by the uvula of soft palate, which elevates when swallow. • Posterior nasopharynx wall also houses a single pharyngeal tonsil (commonly called the adenoids). OROPHARYNX • The middle pharyngeal region. • Immediately posterior to the oral cavity. • Boundaries: – superiorly edge of the soft palate. – inferiorly the hyoid bone. • Common respiratory and digestive pathway through which both air and swallowed food and drink pass. • Contains nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelim. • Lymphatic organs provide the first line of defense against ingested or inhaled foreign materials. • Two pairs of tonsils, the palatine tonsils and lingual tonsils are found in the oropharynx. LARYNGOPHARYNX • Laryngopharynx or hypopharynx • Inferior, narrowed region of the pharynx. • Boundaries – Superiorly hyoid bone • Inferior end it opens into the esophagus (food tube) posteriorly and the larynx (voice box) anteriorly. • Lined with a nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium. • Permits passage of both food and air. Lower Respiratory Tract It includes conducting airway and respiratory portion Composed of trachea, bronchial tree, lungs,
alveolus and alveoli.
Alveoli is the functional unit of lungs.
• Conducting airways (pharynx, trachea,
bronchi, up to terminal bronchioles). • Respiratory portion of the respiratory system (respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and alveoli). Larynx • Larynx or Voice box is a short, cylindrical airway ends in the trachea. It is about 5 cm long. • Boundaries: – Superiorly it attaches to hyoid bone and opens into th laryngopharynx – Inferiorly trachea. – Posteriorly esophagus • Position: It lies in the midline of the neck anterior to the esophagus and the fourth through sixth cervical vertebrae (C4– C6). • It conducts air into the lower respiratory tract. • Produces sounds. • It is composed of a framework of nine pieces of cartilage (three individual pieces and three cartilage pairs) that are held in place by ligaments and muscles. • Except for the epiglottis, all laryngeal cartilages are hyaline cartilages. • Muscles of larynx: extrinsic muscles and intrinsic muscles. • The extrinsic muscles of the larynx connect the cartilages to other structures in the throat. • The intrinsic muscles connect the cartilages to one another. Cartilages of larynx: • Nine c-rings of cartilage form a framework of the larynx. • 3 unpaired • 3 paired • 3 unpaired cartilages – Thyroid cartilage – Cricoid cartilage – Epiglottis • 3 paired cartilages – Arytenoid – Cuneiform – Corniculate cartilages • Thyroid cartilage – (Adam’s apple) consists of two fused plates of hyaline cartilage that form the anterior wall of the larynx and give it a triangular shape. The ligament that connects the thyroid cartilage to the hyoid bone is called the thyrohyoid membrane. • Cricoid cartilage – ring-shaped, hyaline cartilage that forms the inferior wall of the larynx. • Epiglottis – large, leaf shaped piece of elastic cartilage that is covered with epithelium. • Arytenoid are triangular pieces of mostly hyaline cartilages – cartilage located at the posterior, superior border of the cricoid cartilage. They form synovial joints with the cricoid cartilage and have a wide range of mobility. • Cuneiform cartilages - club-shaped elastic cartilages anterior to the corniculate cartilages, support the vocal folds and lateral aspects of the epiglottis. • Corniculate cartilages - horn-shaped pieces of elastic cartilage, are located at the top of each arytenoid cartilage Parts of larynx • Vocal cords • Glottis • Epiglottis • Subglottis • Supraglottis TRACHEA Trache Flexible cylindrical tubea- Size is 4 – 5 in long & 1 in diameter, it is also called windpipe. Lined by ciliated pseudo stratified columnar epithelium. • Extends through the mediastinum and lies anterior to the esophagus and inferior to the larynx. • Anterior and lateral walls of the trachea supported by 15 to 20 C-shaped tracheal cartilages. • Cartilage provide rigidity to the tracheal wall • Posterior part of tube lined by trachealis muscle Layers of trachea: – Innermost layer (mucosa) = pseudostratified columnar with cilia & goblet cells – outer layer (submucosa) = loose connective tissue & mucous glands • At the level of the sternal angle, the trachea divides into two smaller tubes, called the right and left primary bronchi. • Each primary bronchus projects laterally toward each lung. • The inferior tracheal cartilage separates the primary bronchi and forms an internal ridge called the carina. Bronchial tree It is a highly branched system of air-conducting passages that originate from the left and right primary bronchi. Incomplete rings of hyaline cartilage support the walls of the primary bronchi to ensure that they remain open. Right primary bronchus is shorter, wider, and more vertical than the left primary bronchus. • The left lung has two secondary bronchi. The right lung has three secondary bronchi. • They further divide into tertiary bronchi. • Primary bronchi supply each lung • Secondary bronchi supply each lobe of the lungs (3 right + 2 left) • Tertiary bronchi splits into successive sets of Intralobular bronchioles that supply each bronchopulmonary segment ( right = 10, left = 8) • Bronchioles split into Terminal bronchioles and these split into Respiratory Bronchioles • Respiratory Bronchioles splits into multiple Alveolar ducts which end in an Alveolar sac • Successive branching reduces the number of cartilage decreases and the number of smooth muscle increases, this allows for variation in airway diameter, during exertion and also sympathetic and parasympathetic reactions. (Bronchodilation, bronchoconstriction) • The epithelial cells gradually changes from ciliated pseudo stratified columnar epithelium to simple epithelium in terminal bronchioles cuboidal ALVEOLI • Lungs contain small saccular out pocketing called alveoli. • They have a thin wall specialized to promote diffusion of gases between the alveolus and the blood in the pulmonary capillaries. • Gas exchange can take place in the respiratory bronchioles and alveolar ducts as well as in the alveoli, (range: 274–790 million). The spongy nature of the lung is due to the packing of millions of alveoli together. Cells in Alveolus 1. Type I alveolar cells – simple squamous cells where gas exchange occurs 2. Type II alveolar cells (septal cells) – free surface has microvilli – secrete alveolar fluid containing surfactant (reduces surface tension). Hydrophilic region and hydrophobic region) 3. Alveolar dust cells – wandering macrophages remove debris Anatomy of the Lungs • Lung occupies most of the space within the thoracic cavity. It has a conical shape. • Toward the midline, the lungs are separated from each other by the mediastinum and this is called the mediastinal surface • The medial aspect of each lung and the site of entrance or exit are called the hilum of lung. • The structures connecting lung to the mediastinum are called Root of the lung, it includes – Bronchus ( Rt and Lt) – Bronchial vessels – Pulmonary artery – 2 Pulmonary veins – Pulmonary nerve plexuses – Bronchopulmonary lymph nodes and lymphatics. Coastal and Mediastinal Surfaces of Lungs Costal surface of the lung. • The relatively broad, rounded surface in contact with the thoracic wall is called the costal surface of the lung. • The lungs extend laterally from the heart to the ribs on both sides of the chest and continue posteriorly toward the spine. • The superior end of each lung forming the point of the cone and the inferior end forming the base. • The superior end of the lungs narrows to a rounded tip known as the apex. • The apex projects superiorly to a point that is slightly superior and posterior to the clavicle. • The inferior end of the lungs, known as the base. Left lung • Divided into 2 lobes by oblique fissure • Smaller than the right lung • Cardiac notch accommodates the heart • Weight- left lung - 550 gms Right lung • Divided into 3 lobes by oblique and horizontal fissure • Located more superiorly in the body due to liver on right side • Weight- right lung - 600 gms Right lung Left lung • Superior lobe • Superior lobe 1. Apical segment 1. Apico-posterior 2. Posterior segment segment(merger of "apical" 3. Anterior segment and "posterior") • Middle lobe 2. Anterior segment • Lingula of superior lobe 4. Lateral segment 5. Medial segment 3. Inferior lingular segment • Inferior lobe 4. Superior lingular segment • Inferior lobe 6. Superior segment 7. Medial-basal segment 5. Superior segment 8. Anterior-basal segment 6. Anteromedial basal segment (merger of "anterior basal" 9. Lateral-basal segment and "medial basal") 10. Posterior-basal 7. Posterior basal segment segment 8. Lateral basal segment Pleura and Pleural Cavity The rib cage is separated from the lung by a two- layered membranous coating called the pleura. The potential space between the serous membrane layers is a pleural cavity. • The pleural membranes produce a thin, serous pleural fluid that circulates in the pleural cavity and acts as a lubricant, ensuring minimal friction during breathing. • The outer surface of each lung and the adjacent internal thoracic wall are lined by a serous membrane called pleura. • The outer surface of each lung is tightly covered by the visceral pleura. • while the internal thoracic walls, the lateral surfaces of the mediastinum, and the superior surface of the diaphragm are lined by the parietal pleura. • The parietal and visceral pleural layers are continuous at the hilum of each lung. Blood supply of Lungs • Pulmonary circulation – Supplies deoxygenated blood pumped from the right ventricle and it is carried by pulmonary arteries. When blood passes through the capillaries the alveoli becomes oxygenated. • Bronchial circulation – Supplies oxygenated blood pumped from the left ventricle and it is carried by bronchial arteries. This circulation is otherwise called systemic circulation. The bronchial arteries supply blood to the bronchi and connective tissue of the lungs. They travel with and branch with the bronchi, ending about at the level of the respiratory bronchioles. They anastomose with the branches of the pulmonary arteries Pulmonary arteries, the bronchial arteries supply nutrition to the lungs.