Lesson 6

Life processes
• Life processes are the basic functions
performed by living organisms to survive on
earth.
• It has to be performed uninterruptedly in both
active and inactive stage of organism.
• Some of the life processes are nutrition,
respiration, transportation, excretion, control
and coordination, growth etc.
Nutrition is the process of taking food by an organism and its utilization for
energy.
Mode of nutrition varies like : Plants are autotrophic whereas animals are
heterotrophic . 

Respiration is the process of acquiring oxygen from outside the body , and
 

to use it in the process of break down of food sources for cellular needs.

Transportation is the process through which food and oxygen reaches

different parts of the body in multicellular organisms.
Excretion is the process of elimination of toxic waste substances from the
body .

Reproduction is the biological process of producing their own offsprings.

Metabolism The sum total of all the chemical reactions taking place in the
body . It is of 2 types :

Catabolism: In this chemical reaction complex compounds are converted to

simple molecules , energy is released.

Anabolism: In this chemical reaction simple molecules are converted to

complex compounds , energy is stored for further requirements.
 Note
• In single celled organisms , taking in food,
exchange of gases, removal of wastes takes
place through diffusion because the entire
surface of the organism is in contact with the
environment.
• In multicellular organisms simple diffusion will
not meet the requirement because here only
the surface layer is in direct contact with the
environment.
 1. Nutrition
Nutrition : It is the process of obtaining and
utilisation of food for meeting various
requirements of a living being.
Food : Anything that we eat ,which provides
us energy and nutrient is known as food.
Nutrients : Different components of food are
called nutrients.
 Types of Nutrients
Energy Food
•Carbohydrates – Rice , Wheat
•Fats – Oil , Milk

Body building
•Proteins - Pulses
•Carbohydrates & Minerals

Protective foods
•Vitamins – Fruits , Vegetables
•Minerals – Fruits , Vegetables

Water •Juice & Milk

Roughage •Salads
 Types of Nutrition
Depending on the mode of obtaining nutrition , they are classified
as :

Autotrophic Nutrition Heterotrophic Nutrition

• A kind of nutrition where
organisms prepare their
own food through
photosynthesis.
• Such organisms are called
autotrophs.
• Ex: Green plants, bacteria,
euglena
• A kind of nutrition where
organisms depend on other
organisms for food .
• Such organisms are called
heterotrophs.
• Ex: Animals , Fungi
 Autotrophic Nutrition
• A kind of nutrition in which organisms prepare their
own food through the process of photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis : A biochemical process of
manufacturing food from CO2 and water, using solar
energy inside chlorophyll containing cells. In this :
a) Oxygen is liberated
b) Carbohydrate /sugar (glucose) is formed
c) Excess glucose is stored as starch
 Conditions Necessary for Photosynthesis
•Experiments show that Sunlight, chlorophyll and carbon dioxide are necessary for
photosynthesis.
•Experiments depend on the fact that :
a) Green leaves make starch as food.
b) Starch gives blue black colour with iodine
solution.

•The first step followed is:

Destarch : Before conducting experiment green leaves are de
starched by keeping the plant in a completely dark room .
In that case, plant uses the starch already stored in its leaves
during respiration within 3 days.

This de starched leaf is used for experiments .

 Procedure
Activity 6.1 • 1. Take a potted plant of croton .
• 2. Destarch the plant
Chlorophyll is essential • 3. After 3 days keep the potted plant in bright
for photosynthesis sunshine .
• 4. Pluck the variegated leaf from the plant.
• 5.Boil it in water for a few minutes and then in alcohol
to remove its green colour .
• 6.The green parts of the leaf get decolourised.
• 7. Wash the decolourised leaf with hot water to soften it
.
• 8. Pour iodine solution over the colourless leaf and
observe the change in colour of the leaf.

Observation
We will find that the inner part of leaf that was
originally yellow does not turn blue-black on adding
iodine solution whereas the outer part of leaf (green)
turns blue-black , showing that starch is present in this
part of the leaf.

Conclusion
Chlorophyll is necessary for the process of
photosynthesis to take place .
Sunlight is Procedure
necessary for •
•
1.Take a potted plant and destarch its leaves.
2. Take a thin strip of aluminium foil and wrap it tightly in
photosynthesis the centre of one leaf on both the sides so that sunlight
may not fall on that part of the leaf.
• 3. Keep this potted plant in bright sunshine for three to
four days.
• 4. Pluck the partially covered leaf from the plant and
remove its aluminium foil.
• 5. Immerse this leaf in boiling water and then boil it in
alcohol. The leaf will now become colourless
• 6. Remove and wash it thoroughly with hot water to
soften it .
• 7. Place the colourless leaf in a petri-dish. Drop iodine
solution over it . Observe the change in colour of leaf.

Observation
The middle part of leaf which was covered with
aluminium foil does not turn blue-black on adding iodine
solution whereas the uncovered part turns blue-black .

Conclusion
Sunlight is necessary for photosynthesis .
 Procedure
• 1. Destarch a potted plants .
• 2. Place the potted plant (a) on a glass plate and
Activity 6.2
put a watch glass containing potassium hydroxide
Carbon dioxide is necessary for photosynthesis
(KOH) by the side of the pot. Cover it with a bell jar.
• 3. Place the other potted plant (b) on second glass
plate and cover it with a bell jar.
• 4. Use Vaseline to seal the bottom of jars to the
glass plates so that the set up is air tight.
• 5. Keep the plants in sunlight for two hours.
• 6. Pluck a leaf from each plant and test for the
presence of starch.

Observation
• The leaf of plant (b) turns blue-black as it has
synthesised starch, while the leaf of plant (a) with
potassium hydroxide remains colourless.

Conclusion
• CO2 is essential for photosynthesis.
 • There are tiny pores
How do plants obtain
carbon dioxide
present on the under
surface of the leaves
called Stomata.
• Gaseous exchange takes
place through stomata. It
also helps in transpiration.
• Stomata has 2 bean
shaped cells which helps
in opening and closing of
the stomatal pores , which
are called Guard cells.
 Heterotrophic Nutrition
• Nutrition in which organisms derive energy
from the intake and digestion of the organic
substances prepared by autotrophs and other
organic sources.
• Such organisms are called heterotrophs.
• Ex: Human beings ,cow etc.
 Kinds of heterotrophic nutrition

Saprophytic Parasitic Holozoic

• Involves intake
of solid pieces
• Here organisms • In this of food . It
depend on organisms involves :
dead & depend on ingestion,
decaying other living digestion,
organisms. organisms for absorption,
• Ex: Fungi food assimilation and
(mushroom, • Ex: Leech, egestion.
yeast) mosquitoes etc. • Ex:Animals ,
protozoan
protists etc./
Depending on source of food , holozoic
organisms are of following types

Herbivores Carnivores Omnivores Detrivores

• Feed on
other • Feed on both
• Feed on plants animals plants and • Feed on dead
bodies of
• Ex: cow, • Ex: lion, animals
other animals.
buffalo, dear, tiger, • Ex: cockroach, • Ex: Vulture,
goat etc. leopard, ant, pig, crow,
humans etc. hyena, kite etc
snake, hawk
etc.
 Nutrition in Amoeba
Mode of nutrition : Holozoic
Process: Phagocytosis
Nutrition in paramecium
Nutrition in Human Beings
• The various organs of the human digestive system are: Mouth,
Oesophagus , Stomach, Small intestine and Large intestine.
• The glands which are associated with the human digestive system are:
Salivary glands, Liver and Pancreas.
The various steps of nutrition in human beings are as follows:
a) Ingestion: In human beings, food is ingested through the mouth.
The food is put into the mouth with the help of hands.

b) Digestion: The digestion of food begins in the mouth itself.

• The teeth cut the food into small pieces, chew and grind it. (Physical
digestion)
• The salivary glands in our mouth produce saliva (watery liquid) which
contains an enzyme salivary amylase which digests the starch
(carbohydrate) present in the food into sugar. (Chemical digestion)
• Our tongue helps in mixing this saliva with food.
• The digestion of food remains incomplete in mouth.
Activity 6.3
Demonstrate action of saliva
on starch
Procedure
Take 2 test tubes A & B
Add 1ml of starch solution (1%) in both the
test tubes.
Now add 1 ml saliva to test tube B and leave
the test tubes undisturbed for 20 to 30 min.
Now add dilute iodine solution to both test
tubes.

Observation
The blue colour appears in test tube A and
test tube B shows brown colour.

Conclusion
This indicates that salivary amylase present
in saliva has broken down starch into
soluble sugar.
 Oesophagus: The slightly digested food in the mouth is
swallowed by the tongue and goes down the food pipe called
oesophagus.
When the slightly digested food enters the food pipe, the
walls of food pipe start contraction and expansion movements
called as peristaltic movement.
This peristaltic movement of food pipe pushes the slightly
digested food into the stomach.

Stomach: The stomach is a J-shaped organ present on the left

side of the abdomen.
• The stomach walls contains three tubular glands in its walls
which secrete gastric juice.
• The gastric juice contains three substances: Hydrochloric acid,
the enzyme pepsin and mucus.
• The hydrochloric creates an acidic medium which facilitates the action
of the enzyme pepsin i.e. digestion of protein.
• The mucus helps to protect the stomach wall from its own secretions
of hydrochloric acid.
• The partially digested food then goes from the stomach into the small
intestine.
Small intestine: From the stomach, the partially digested food enters
the small intestine.
• The small intestine is the largest part (about 6.5m) of the alimentary
canal.
• The small intestine is very narrow and arranged in the form of a coil in
our belly.
• The small intestine in human beings is the site of complete digestion
of food (like carbohydrates, proteins and fats)
• The small intestine receives the secretion of two glands: Liver and
Pancreas.
• Liver secretes bile (greenish yellow liquid made in the liver and stored in
gall bladder).
• Bile performs two functions:
– Makes the acidic food coming from the stomach alkaline so that
pancreatic enzymes can act on it.
– Bile salts break the fats present in the food into small globules making
it easy for the enzymes to act and digest them.
• The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice which contains enzymes like
pancreatic amylase for breaking down starch, trypsin for digesting proteins
and lipase for breaking down emulsified fats.
• The walls of the small intestine contain glands which secretes intestinal
juice. The enzymes present in it finally convert the proteins into amino
acids, complex carbohydrates into glucose and fats into fatty acids and
glycerol.
• In this way the process of digestion converts the large and insoluble food
molecules into small water soluble molecules.
 c) Absorption : The small intestine is the main region for the absorption of
digested food.
• The inner surface of the small intestine has numerous finger-like projections
called villi which increase the surface area for rapid absorption of digested
food.
• The digested food which is absorbed through the walls of the small intestine
goes into our blood.

d) Assimilation : The blood carries digested and dissolved food to all the parts
of the body where it becomes assimilated as part of the cells and is utilised
for obtaining energy, building up new tissues and the repair of old tissues.

e) Egestion: The unabsorbed food is sent into the large intestine where more
villi absorb water from this material.
• The rest of the material is removed from the body via the anus.
• The exit of this waste material is regulated by the anal sphincter.
2.Respiration
 Types of cellular respiration
Depending upon the availability of oxygen
cellular respiration is of 2 types :
a) Aerobic b) Anaerobic
a) Aerobic respiration : Takes place in the
presence of oxygen
b) Anaerobic respiration : Takes place in the
absence of oxygen.
 Cellular respiration
• Cellular respiration can be of 2 types aerobic and anaerobic
respiration.
Aerobic Respiration
• During aerobic cellular respiration breakdown of food
(glucose) takes place in the presence of oxygen.
• Carbon dioxide and water are created as byproducts. Energy
is liberated.
• The overall equation for aerobic cellular respiration is:
The three stages of aerobic
cellular respiration are
a) Glycolysis : Occurs in
cytoplasm ,Glucose is
broken down into Pyruvic
acid. 
b)The Krebs cycle :
Pyruvic acid enters into
mitochondria where it is
completely broken down .
c) Oxidative
phosphorylation : Oxidative
breakdown results in the
production of energy rich
compounds ATP.
 Anaerobic Respiration
• In anaerobic respiration breakdown of food takes
place in the absence of oxygen.
• End products formed are Ethanol and Lactic acid and
carbon dioxide is released.
• Steps followed are :-
a) Glycolysis : It takes place inside the cytoplasm as in
aerobic respiration. This is followed by the anaerobic
process of fermentation to make ATP.
b) Fermentation : Occurs in certain micro-
organisms(bacteria , yeast) and in muscle cells.
In Muscle cells – occurs
during vigorous exercise
when oxygen gets used up
faster in the muscle cells
than can be supplied by
the blood.
Glucose is converted to
Lactic acid .

In Yeast – use alcoholic

fermentation to produce
ethanol.
This is carried out by a
complex enzyme called
Zymase.
 Activity 6.4
To demonstrate that we breathe out carbon
dioxide
Procedure
Take 2 test tubes A & B.
Pour fresh lime water (a solution of calcium hydroxide)
in each tube.
Pass air through lime water in tube A with the help of
syringe.
Blow air through lime water in tube B
With the help of glass tube.

Observation
Lime water in tube A takes time to turn milky but lime
water in tube B turns milky.

Conclusion
This shows that we exhale CO2
NOTE : when lime water reacts with co2 it turns milky .
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 = CaCO3 + H2O
 Activity 6.5
To demonstrate the process of fermentation
Procedure
Take some fruit juice or sugar solution
in a test tube and add some yeast to it.
Close the opening of test tube with a
one holed cork.
Insert a bent glass tube in the cork and
dip the other end of tube into the other
test tube containing lime water .
Leave it for few hours.
Observation
The lime water turns milky.
Conclusion
Carbon dioxide is liberated from the
mixture of sugar solution and yeast.
Fermentation of sugar results in
production of ethyl alcohol and co2.
 Respiration in Plants
Stomata •Exchange of gases takes place through these fine pores through diffusion.

Root Hair •In Xerophytes(desert plants) through long root hairs.

Lenticels •Lenticels : Minute openings in the crack of barks, specially present in old trees.
 Respiration in animals
Different ways of Respiration are:

Tracheal • In insects ,tiny holes called spiracles on their body

and air tubes called trachea are respiratory

Respiration organs. Ex: Grass hopper, cockroach, housefly,

mosquitoes, centipedes, butterfly etc

Pulmonary •Is respiration through lungs.

Respiration • Ex: mammals, birds, lizards, frog etc.

Cutaneous •Respiration through wet skin.

Respiration • Ex: Earthworm
Respiration :Trachea, Pulmonary, Cutaneous
 •Aquatic animals respire
Gill through gills.
Respiration • Ex : Fish, Tadpole, Prawn etc.

Diffusio •Respiration also takes place through

simple diffusion .

n •Ex: Unicellular organisms like amoeba

Respiration : Gills, Diffusion
Respiration in Fish

It takes place through

Gills .The fish breathes
by taking in water
through mouth .The
water flows through
gills which absorbs
dissolved oxygen in
water. Carbon dioxide
is brought by the
blood to the gills and
is expelled out
through Operculum .
 Respiration in human beings
• In all higher living organisms, the respiratory organ is
lungs and gaseous exchange takes place from these
lungs.
 Organs of respiration
1. Nostril
• Air enters the body through the nose. Nostrils are lined
with mucus and have hair like stuctures called cilia.
• Cilia prevent entry of dust particles in the air to the
lungs.
• Dust particles are trapped by the mucus and taken out.
2. Throat and Pharynx
• The nasal cavity leads into the Pharynx.
• Pharynx is the posterior part of the nasal passage
which is connected to the mouth.
 3. Larynx
• Pharynx opens into anterior wider part of trachea called
Larynx. Opening is called glottis .
• The glottis bears a leaf like flap called epiglottis.
• During swallowing of food epiglottis closes glottis to
check the entry of food into it.
4. Trachea and Bronchi
• The trachea (wind pipe) is a tube which arises from the
base of larynx.
• The trachea divides into two tubes, The right and left
bronchi. After air has passed through the trachea, it
enters the bronchi. Each bronchus enters a lung.
 5.Lungs
• The lungs are a pair of elastic organs present in the chest or pleural cavity of the
body.
• They are the main organs of respiration.
• In the lungs the bronchi then divide into smaller tubes called bronchioles.
• The bronchioles connect to tiny ducts that lead into air sacs called alveoli.
• Alveoli are usually surrounded by tiny blood vessels.
• In the alveoli gaseous exchange occurs. Oxygen from the alveoli passes into the
blood cells and is carried to different parts of the body. At the same time,
carbon dioxide from the blood vessels passes into the alveoli.

6. The Thoracic Cavity and Diaphragm

• The thoracic cavity is hollow cavity divided into two pleural cavities each
enclosing a lung. The floor of the thoracic cavity is completely closed by a thin
muscular septum called diaphragm. The thorax is separated from the abdomen
below by the diaphragm.
Exchange of gases in
tissues
 3. Transportation
• A life process in which a substance synthesized or
absorbed in one part of the organism is carried to
other parts of the body.

Transportation in Human Beings

• Takes place through Circulatory System, which is made
up of tubes, heart and circulatory fluids (Blood and
Lymph).Accordingly circulatory system is of 2 types:
a) Blood Vascular System
b) Lymphatic System
 a) Blood vascular System
It comprises :
Heart – Organ which pumps and receives blood
Blood vessels – Tubes through which blood
flows .
Blood and its components
Blood is a mobile , reddish coloured fluid that
circulates in blood vessels , supplies nutrients
and oxygen to all the living cells and removes
waste products and co2 from them.
 Composition of Blood
i) Plasma
• Fluid part of blood
• Pale yellow in colour
• Slightly alkaline
• Constitutes 55% of blood
• 92% water and 8% solutes
• Important solutes are :
proteins, nutrients, excretory
products, salts, gases,
hormones, heparin ( does not
allow blood to coagulate
inside blood vessels) etc.
 ii) Blood corpuscles
• Also called formed cells.
• Constitute 45% of blood
• They are of 3 types:
RBC , WBC , Platelets

RBC – rich in hemoglobin .

Older RBCs are destroyed in
spleen and Liver , hence called
graveyard of RBCs, also stores
RBCs so called blood bank of the
body.

WBC – Ingests germs (phagocytes)

and secretes antibodies
(immunocytes) .

Platelets – Helps in clotting of

blood.
Blood Vessels
 Assignment 1
Q.1 What is transportation?
Q.2 How does transportation take place in
human beings?
Q.3 What is a vascular system?
Q.4 What is the blood vascular system made
up of?
Q.5 What is blood and what are its
components?
Structure and Function of heart
Structure of the Heart

•The heart is a muscular organ

about the size of a fist, located
just behind and slightly left of the
breastbone.
•Reddish brown in colour.
•The heart pumps blood through
the network of arteries and veins
called the cardiovascular system.
•Heart is covered by a narrow fluid
filled membranous sac called
Pericardium .
The heart has four chambers:
• The right atrium receives
deoxygenated blood from the veins
and pumps it to the right ventricle.
• The right ventricle receives blood
from the right atrium and pumps it
to the lungs, where it is loaded
with oxygen.
• The left atrium receives
oxygenated blood from the lungs
and pumps it to the left ventricle.
• The left ventricle (the strongest
chamber) pumps oxygen-rich blood
to the rest of the body. The left
ventricle’s vigorous contractions
create our blood pressure.
 Function of the heart
• Most vital function of heart is heart beats.
• The sequence of events which takes place
during the completion of one heart beat is
called the Cardiac cycle.
• It involves repeated rhythmic contraction and
relaxation of heat muscles.
• Contraction is called systole .
• Relaxation is called diastole .
 Cardiac Cycle involves :
a) Joint Diastole : muscles of all 4
chambers of heart are relaxed and
the blood returning to the heart
enters the two atria.
b) Atrial Systole : valve opens and
atria contracts which forces and
pushes the blood into the ventricles.
c) Ventricular Systole : Next ventricles
contract and deoxygenated blood
from the right ventricle flows to the
lungs and oxygenated blood from
left ventricles is distributed to all
parts of the body.
Double Circulation in Human beings
• In double circulation, there are two pathways
in which blood flows. They are:
• Pulmonary pathway
• Systemic pathway.
• The pulmonary circulation or pathway carries
the deoxygenated blood from the right side
of the heart to the lungs.  Exchange of 
oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place in the
lungs and the blood is now oxygenated .
• Through the systemic circulation, oxygenated
blood travels from the left side of the heart
to the other areas of the body. The
deoxygenated blood again goes back to the
right side of the heart.
• The pulmonary circuit and the systemic
circuit work together.
Significance of Double Circulation
(Birds and mammals)

Double circulation is a distinguishing

characteristic of the human
circulatory system. It is very
significant as it allows for proper
circulation of blood, without the
mixing of the oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood. This
separation of oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood allows for an
efficient supply of oxygen to the
body cells and delivers a greater
blood flow rate.
Single & Double Circulation
 Assignment 2
Q.1 What are the functions of blood?
Q.2 Explain the structural and functional
difference of the 3 types of blood vessels.
Q.3 Write the structure and function of the
heart .
Q.4 What is blood pressure?
Q.5 Describe double circulation in human
beings. Why is it necessary in mammals and
birds ?
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 Lymphatic Circulation
• As blood circulates through the body,
blood plasma leaks into tissues through
the thin walls of the capillaries.
• The portion of blood plasma that
escapes is, called extracellular fluid and
it contains oxygen, glucose, amino acids,
and other nutrients needed by tissue
 cells.
• Although most of this fluid seeps
immediately back into the bloodstream,
a percentage of it, along with the
particulate matter, is left behind.
• The lymphatic system removes this fluid
and these materials from tissues,
returning them via the lymphatic vessels
to the bloodstream, and thus prevents a
fluid imbalance that would result in the
organism’s death.
• The fluid and proteins within the tissues begin their
journey back to the bloodstream by passing into tiny
lymphatic capillaries.
• Once within the lymphatic system, the lymph, drains into
larger vessels called the lymphatics.
• These vessels converge to form one of two large vessels
called lymphatic trunks, which are connected to veins at
the base of the neck.
• Lymph is transported along the system of vessels by 
muscle contractions, and valves prevent lymph from
flowing backward. The lymphatic vessels are punctuated
at intervals by small masses of lymph tissue, called 
lymph nodes, that remove foreign materials such as
infectious microorganisms from the lymph filtering
through them.
Transportation in Plants

• Materials needed by plants from

outside are: gases(O2, CO2 ) , water
and minerals.
• Materials synthesised by plant cells
are : Organic food and hormones.
i) Gases enter through –
a) Root hairs b) Lenticels c)Stomata
The process is called diffusion.
ii) Water and minerals are absorbed
from the soil and transported
through Xylem.
iii) Organic food and hormones are
transported through Phloem.
 2 types of transportation in plants
a) Transportation of water and minerals
Involves 3 interconnected processes:
i) Absorption of water and minerals
Wate Throug Xylem
Epide Cort Endod
r Soil h root
hairs rmis ex ermis
vessels
and
tracheids

ii) Ascent of sap / Upward movement of

water and minerals
Theories : Root pressure theory
Transpiration pull theory
iii) Transpiration
Ascent of Sap
b) Transportation of food & other substances
• Phloem is the tissue that helps in the
transport of food throughout the plant.
• The different elements of phloem
include sieve tubes, companion cells,
phloem parenchyma and phloem
fibres.
• Food is transported by a special
mechanism called as pressure flow
hypothesis.
• The mechanism of translocation
involves certain steps :
* As sugar is synthesised in the leaves
by the process of photosynthesis, a
high concentration of organic
substance inside the phloem cells of
the leaf creates a diffusion gradient by
which more water is sucked into the
cells.  
* Phloem sap with lot of sugar
moves from sugar sources (leaves)
to sugar sinks with the help of
turgor pressure. Sugar sources are
the organs of the plant which
synthesise sugars. Sugar sinks is
the area where it is utilised.
 *Hydrostatic pressure increases in
the phloem sieve tubes, pressure
flow begins and the sap moves
through the phloem. 
 *Osmotic pressure at the sink is
reduced. Sucrose from the phloem
sap is removed and given to the
cells which utilise it by converting it
into energy or starch or cellulose
 Assignment 3
Q.1 What is Lymphatic system? What does it
consist of?
Q.2 What are the functions of lymphatic
system?
Q.3 How does transportation take place in
plants? Explain.
 3. Excretion
Elimination of metabolic waste products from
the body is called excretion.
Waste products are unwanted by products of
metabolism like urea ,uric acid ,ammonia ,bile
pigments etc.
It helps in osmoregulation.
 Excretory system in different animals

Contractile
vacuoles(amoeba)
Malpighian tubule(insects)

Nephridia(earthworm)

Malpighian tubules Kidneys (Vertebrates)

(centipede)
 Excretion in Human beings
Humans have urinary system which consists of :
a) Kidneys
Blood through aorta enters kidneys via renal
arteries.
Blood returns to posterior vena cava via renal
veins.
Structural & functional unit of kidneys are
nephrons.
Each kidney has 1 million nephrons in it.
b) Ureters
Arises and carries urine from kidney and opens
into the urinary bladder.
c) Urinary bladder
Pear shaped sac. Stores urine.
d) Urethra
Tube which takes urine from bladder to
outside.
Positioning of Kidney
 Structure of Nephron
• Nephron is the filtration unit of Kidney.
• It has 2 parts :
a) Malpighian body b) Renal tubules

a) Malpighian body : Consists of cup

shaped Bowmen’s Capsule and a bunch
of blood capillaries called Glomerulus.

Glomerulus arise from an afferent

arteriole and gives rise to efferent
arteriole. Diameter of efferent arteriole is
less than afferent arteriole , this results
in pressure filtration.

The waste product is filtered out in the

Bowmen’s capsule like some solutes and
water. This is known as Primary Urine.
b) Renal Tubule : It has 3 parts
i) Proximal Convoluted tubule (PCT)
ii) Loop of Henle
iii) Distal Convoluted tubule (DCT)

From Bowman’s capsule primary urine passes into

PCT. Capillaries around them reabsorbs all the useful
components like glucose , amino acids , vitamin c , Ca ,
K , Na , water etc.
Selective reabsorption also takes place in DCT.

Tubular secretion ie. Active secretion of waste

products by blood capillaries into the urinary tubules
takes place in DCT and to some extent in PCT .

Passing through the tubular structure the fluid called

urine reaches the collecting duct .

From here urine enters the Urinary bladder through

the ureter and is taken out through the urethra .
 Excretion in Plants
Excretion in plants occurs through various means - 1.
Excess water is removed through stomata by
transpiration which is the process of removal or
evaporation of water.
2. Plants also get rid of oxygen, a by - product in the
process of photosynthesis and carbon dioxide which is
the by - product formed during respiration. The plants
get rid of these by stomata present in their leaves.
3. Some of the wastes stored in the leaves are
removed by the detachment of the leaves itself from 
the tree.
4. Waste are also stored in the cellular vacuoles which do
not affect the functioning of cytoplasm because of its
outer membrane known as tonoplast.
5. Other waste products are stored in resins and gums,
especially in old xylem which stops working thereby.
(what if the xylem stops working? How will the
transportation of water and minerals occur all along the
plant? The thing is that the plant have many xylem tissues
for the transportation of water and old xylem tissues
always get replaced by the new ones).
6. Terrestrial plants excrete some waste into  the soil
around them whereas aquatic plants remove the wastes
by the process of diffusion.
Artificial Kidney(Hemodialysis)
 Assignment 4
Q.1 What is excretion? How is it important?
Q.2 What is osmoregulation?
Q.3 Is egestion a type of excretion?
Q.4 How do the following organisms excrete :
a) protozoans b) Earthworms
c) Insects , centipedes ,millipedes etc.
d) Molluscs, vertebrates.
Q.5 How does excretion take place in human
beings?
Q.6 Explain the structure and function of Nephron.
Q.7 How is the amount of urine produced regulated?
Q.8 What are the methods used by plants to get rid of excretory
products?