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IFT Definition of Food Science

Food science is the discipline in which biology,
chemistry, physical sciences and engineering are
used to study:
The nature of foods
The causes of their deterioration
The principles underlying food processing.
Food Science: An Interdisciplinary
Field of Study
Microbiology

Biology Chemistry

Food Science
Physics Nutrition
Engineering
Food Chemistry
 Basis of food science
 Water

 Carbohydrates

 Proteins

 Lipids

 Micronutrients

 Phytochemicals

 Others
Food Chemistry Examples
 Lipids in Peanuts
 Opened jar peanut butter: chemical reaction
in the oil phase
 Oxidation of the unsaturated fatty acids in
the peanut oil results in production of a
rancid odor.
 Peanut butter represents a special food
system called an emulsion
H H H H
C C C C Hydrocarbon chain
H H
oxygen
Common Chemical Bonds in Foods
 Covalent
 Sharing 1 or more pairs of electrons
 Very strong bonds, not easily broken in foods
 C-C or C=C bonds
 Ionic
 Filling of orbitals through the transfer of electrons
 Cations (+) and Anions (-); Na+ + Cl- => NaCl
 Hydrogen
 Compounds containing O or N with bound hydrogen
 Very weak bonds; C-H or N-H
Functional Groups in Foods
The “Basics” of Food Chemistry
 SOME FOOD MOLECULES
important in food chemistry

H–O–H CH3 – COOH O=C=O

Na H CO3 C6H12O6 NaCl

NH2 – CH2 - COOH CH3 – (CH2)n - COOH

 SOME FOOD MOLECULES
important in food chemistry

WATER acetic acid carbon dioxide

sodium bicarbonate glucose sodium chloride

general
The amino acid
structure of a
“glycine”
fatty acid
 A Few Food Functional Groups:

ACID GROUP: “carboxylic acid” COOH

acids donate (lose) protons

COOH  COO(-) + H(+)

This means acids form ions (charged species)
anion has (-) charge
cation has (+) charge

Vinegar contains acetic acid CH3COOH

Tartaric acid found in grapes is a di-carboxylic acid –

Citric acid is tri-carboxylic acid.
AMINO GROUP: NH2

Derived from ammonia (NH3)

Amines are “basic” – means they gain protons

methyl amine: CH3 – NH2

trimethylamine is found in fish, and is responsible for

“fishy odor”

CH3 – CH – COOH Alanine, an amino acid

NH2
 Alcohol group - OH “hydroxyl group”

Methyl alcohol = methanol: CH3- OH

Ethanol C2H5OH is produced during the fermentation

of sugars; it is water-soluble and is called “grain alcohol”
because it is obtained from corn, wheat, rice, barley,
and fruits.

Yeasts use sugars for food – they ferment

simple carbohydrates and produce ethanol and CO2:

STARCH hydrolysis  C6H12O6  2 C2H5OH + 2 CO2

Glucose Ethanol Carbon
Dioxide

Other food molecules that contain OH groups: cholesterol (a lipid),

tocopherol (a vitamin), retinol (a vitamin), & calciferol (a vitamin)
Aldehyde group - CHO

There is actually a double bond between two atoms

in this group:

formaldehyde HCHO: H–C–H

Aldehydes can be formed from lipid oxidation, and

generally have very low sensory thresholds.

For example, fresh pumpkin has the smell of

acetaldehyde; fresh cut grass the smell of hexenal.
Covalent: Sharing of electrons, strong bonds, C-C or C=C bonds
Ionic: Transfer of electrons, NaCl
Hydrogen: Weak bonds with O or N with bound hydrogen

There are 3 other important bonds in foods:

(1) An ester bond (linkage) in lipids

(2) A peptide bond (linkage) in proteins

(3) A glycosidic bond (linkage) in sugars

 An ester bond (linkage) in lipids:
In food fats, fatty acids are attached to glycerol molecules, through
what is called an ester linkage

O
Glycerol C O fatty acid

Ester linkage
Glycerol is a small molecule, containing only 3 carbons

But, to each carbon atom of glycerol, one fatty acid

can attach, via an ester bond.

A mono-, di-, or tri-esterified fatty acid to a glycerol is:

A MONOACYLGLYCEROL. A fat molecule that

has ONE fatty acid attached (“esterified”) to glycerol.

A DIACYLGLYCEROL. A fat molecule that

has TWO fatty acids esterified to glycerol.

A TRIACYLGLYCEROL. A fat molecule that

has THREE fatty acids esterified to glycerol.
 Ester

H
H O
H–C–OH
H – C – O – C - (CH2)n – CH3
H–C–OH
H–C–OH
H–C–OH Fatty acid chain
H–C–OH
H
H

a monoglyceride

Glycerol
What do peptide bonds (linkages) in proteins look like?

In food proteins, or “polypeptides”, individual amino acids are

attached to each other through what is called a peptide linkage

Amino acid Amino acid. . . repeat

Peptide linkage
AMINO ACIDS contain both the amino (NH2)
and the acid (COOH) group in their structure.

In the formation of a peptide bond, one of the amino

acids loses one H atom, and the other loses O and H.

H O H O
NH2 C – C - O – H ------------- NH2 C – C - O – H

“R” “R”
R is any
Side chain

Acid group of the amino acid Amino group

The formation of peptide bond

N-C-C-N
A glycosidic linkage in sugars connects
sugar units into larger structures

Glycosidic linkage

glucose glucose
O

MALTOSE, a disaccharide composed of 2 glucose units

Structures of sugar disaccharides

Alpha 1,4 glycosidic

bond

Beta 1,4 glycosidic

bond

Alpha 1,4 glycosidic

bond
Polymeric Linkages

CH 2 OH CH 2 OH
O O

O OH O OH
OH OH
Amylose Cellulose

Alpha 1,4 Linkage Beta 1,4 Linkage

Digestible Indigestible
Organic Acids in Foods

Application of functional groups

 Acids in Foods
Organic acids
 Citric (lemons), Malic (apples), Tartaric
(grapes), Lactic (yogurt), Acetic (vinegar)
 Food acids come in many forms, however:
 Proteins are made of amino acids
 Fats are made from fatty acids

 Fruits and vegetables contain phenolic acids

 Organic acids are characterized by carboxylic

acid group (R-COOH); not present in
“mineral acids” such as HCl and H3PO4
Chemical
Structures
of
Common
Organic
Acids
 Acids in Foods
 Add flavor, tartness
 Aid in food preservation by lowering pH
 Acids donate protons (H+) when dissociated
 Strong acids have a lot of dissociated ions
 Weak acids have a small dissociation constant
 Acids dissociate based on pH
 As the pH increases, acid will dissociate
 pKa is the pH equilibrium between assoc/dissoc
Titration Curve for Acetic Acid
 Acids in Foods
 Weak acids are commonly added to foods
 Citric acid is the most common
 When we eat a food containing citric acid, the
higher pH of our mouth (pH 7) will dissociate
the acid, and giving a characteristics sour flavor
pH and Titratable Acidity
 pH measures the amount of dissociated ions
 TA measures total acidity (assoc and dissoc)
 They also have other roles in food
 Control pH
 Preserve food (pH 4.6 is a critical value)
 Provide leavening (chemical leavening)
 Aid in gel formation (i.e. pectin gels)
 Help prevent non-enzymatic browning
 Help prevent enzymatic browning
 Synergists for antioxidants (for some, low pH is good)
 Chelate metal ions (i.e. citric acid)
 Enhance flavor (balance sweetness)
Acids in Foods
 In product development you can use one
acid or a combinations of acids

 -flavor
 -functionality
- synergy
 - naturally occurring blends
 - food additives
Acidity is important chemically

 -Denaturation and precipitation of proteins

 -Modify carbohydrates and hydrolysis of

complex sugars

 -Hydrolysis of fatty acids from TAG’s

 Generally under alkaline conditions

 Inversion of sugars (sucrose to glu + fru)

Chemical Reactions in Foods
(1) Enzymatic
(2) Non-enzymatic

Generically applied to:

Carbohydrates
Lipids
Proteins
CARBOHYDRATE
chemical reactions:

 Enzymatic browning
 Non-enzymatic browning
 Hydrolysis
 Fermentation
 Oxidation/reduction
 Starch gelatinization
PROTEIN
chemical reactions:

 Buffering
 Non-enzymatic browning
 Hydrolysis
 Condensation
 Oxidation
 Denaturation
 Coagulation
LIPID
chemical reactions

 Oxidation
 Hydrolysis
 Hydrogenation
Chemical Bonds to Chemical Rxns
 Chemical Reactions in Foods
 Enzymatic
 Enzymes are proteins that occur in every living system
 Enzymes can have beneficial and detrimental effects
 Bacterial fermentations in cheese, pickles, yogurt
 Adverse color, texture, flavor, and odor

 High degree of specificity (Enzyme – Substrate)

 Non-enzymatic
 Those reactions that do not require enzymes
 Addition, redox, condensation, hydrolysis
The Active Site of the ES Complex
 Enzyme Reactions
 Enzymatic reactions can occur from enzymes
naturally present in a food
 Or as part of food processing, enzymes are
added to foods to enable a desired effect
 Enzymes speed up chemical reactions (good
or bad) and must be controlled by monitoring
time and temperature.
 Typically we think of enzymes as “breaking
apart” lipids, proteins, or carbs; but there
are several enzyme categories
sucrase
sucrose glucose + fructose
“invertase”
 Enzyme Class Characterizations
1. Oxidoreductase
Oxidation/reduction reactions
2. Transferase
Transfer of one molecule to another (i.e. functional groups)
3. Hydrolase
Catalyze bond breaking using water (ie. protease, lipase)
4. Lyase
Catalyze the formation of double bonds, often in dehydration
reactions, during bond breaking
5. Isomerase
Catalyze intramolecular rearrangement of molecules
6. Ligase
Catalyze covalent attachment of two substrate molecules
 Common Enzyme Reactions
(some reactions can also occur without enzymes)

HYDROLYSIS
 Food molecules split into smaller products, due to the
action of enzymes, or other catalysts (heat, acid) in the
presence of water

OXIDATION / REDUCTION:
 Reactions that cause changes in a food’s chemical
structures through the addition or removal of an
electron (hydrogen).
 Oxidation is the removal of an electron
 Reduction is the addition of an electron
 Oxidation vs Oxidized

 The removal of an electron is oxidation (redox reactions).

 When a food system is oxidized, oxygen is added to an active
binding site
 For example, the result of lipid oxidation is that the lipid may
become oxidized.

 In the food industry, we common speak of “oxidizing agents”

versus “reducing agents”. Both are used in foods.
 Reducing agents are compounds that can donate an electron in the
event of an oxidation reaction.
 L-ascorbic acid is an excellent reducing agent as are most antioxidants
 Oxidizing agents induce the removal of electrons
 Benzoyl peroxide is commonly added to “bleached” wheat flour
Lets put Enzymes and Chemical
Reactions into Perspective
Enzymes
 Living organisms must be able to carry out chemical reactions
which are thermodynamically very unfavorable
 Break and/or form covalent bonds
 Alter large structures
 Effect three dimensional structure changes
 Regulate gene expression

They do so through enzyme catalysis

 A common biological reaction can take place without
enzyme catalysis
 …but will take 750,000,000 years
 With an enzyme….it takes ~22 milliseconds
 Even improvement of a factor of 1,000 would be good
 Only 750,000 years
 Living system would be impossible
 Effect of Enzymes
A bag of sugar can be stored for years with very little
conversion to CO2 and H2O
 This conversion is basic to life, for energy
 When consumed, it is converted to chemical energy
very fast
 Both enzymatic and non-enzymatic reactions

 Enzymes are highly specialized class of

proteins:
 Specialized to perform specific chemical reactions
 Specialized to work in specific environments
 Enzymes
• Food quality can be changed due to the activity of
enzymes during storage or processing
• Enzymes can also be used as analytical indicators to
follow those changes

• Enzyme-catalyzed reactions can either enhance or

deteriorate food quality
• Changes in color, texture, sensory properties
 Enzyme Applications in the Food Industry

Carbohydrases: making corn syrup from starch

Proteases: Meat tenderizers
Lipases: Flavor production in chocolate and cheese

 Pectinases
 Glucose oxidase
 Flavor enzymes
 Lipoxygenase
 Polyphenol oxidase
 Rennin (chymosin)
Water Content of Foods
 Tomatoes, lettuce -- 95%
 Apple juice, milk -- 87%
 Potato -- 78%
 Meats -- 65-70% H O
O H H
 Bread -- 35% H
 Honey -- 20%
 Rice, wheat flour -- 12%
 Shortening -- 0%
 Water Works
 Water must be “available” in foods for the action of
both chemical and enzymatic reactions.

 The “available” water represents the degree to which

water in a food is free for:
 Chemical reactions
 Enzymatic reactions
 Microbial growth
 Quality characteristics
 Related to a simple loss of moisture
 Related to gel breakdown
 Food texture (gain or loss)
 Water Works
 Very important (#1 ingredient in many foods)
 Structure
 Polar nature, hydrogen bonding
 Can occur in many forms (S,L,V)
 Acts as a dispersing medium or solvent
 Solubility
 Hydration
 Emulsions
 Gels
 Colloids
 Water Works
 The amount of “free” water, available for these reactions
and changes is represented by Water Activity.
 As the percentage of water in a food is “bound” changing
from its “free” state, the water activity decreases
 Water Activity is represented by the abbreviation: A
w
 A = P/ P
w o
 P = Vapor pressure of a food
 Po = Vapor pressure of pure water (1.0)
 Vapor pressure can be represented as equilibrium RH
 Is based on a scale of 0.0 to 1.0
 Any food substance added to water will lower water
activity….so, all foods have a water activity less than 1.0
 Water
Free vs. bound
 Water activity (Aw)
 Measured by vapor pressure of food
 This value is directly correlated to the growth of
microorganisms and the chemical reactions
 3 Forms of Water
 Free water (capillary water or Type III)
 Water that can be easily removed from a food
 Water that is responsible for the humidity of a food
 Water from which water activity is measured

 Bound water (adsorbed or Type II)

 Water that is tied up by the presense of soluble solids
 Salts, vitamins, carbohydrates, proteins, emsulifiers, etc.

 Water of hydration (Structured or Type I)

 Water held in hydrated chemicals
 Na SO . 10H O
2 4 2
 Water Sorption Isotherm
Type I Type II Type III
Hydration Absorbed Free

Moisture Content
erm
th
t Iso
te n
o n
C
t ure
o is
M

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

Water Activity
 Water Sorption Isotherm
Type I Type II Type III
Hydration Absorbed Free
Relative Reactivity

Moisture Content
t i on e rm
da th
ox
i
t Iso
pi
d n ten
i o
L
ur eC NE
B
ist
o ty s
M ivi ld
e act M
o
zym
En
e ast
Y
MO

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

Water Activity
Moisture sorption isotherm (MSI)
 How to Use the Isotherm
Moisture sorption isotherms
 Shows the relationship between water activity and moisture at a
given temperature (the two are NOT equivalent)

 Represent moisture content at equilibrium for each water activity

 Allow for predictions in changes of moisture content and its

potential effect on water activity

 If the temperature is altered, then the relationships can not be

compared equivalently

 Each reaction is governed by its own temperature-dependence

 Acid hydrolysis reactions are faster at high temperatures
 Enzyme-catalyzed reactions cease to function at high temperatures
 Influences on Water Activity
 Foods will naturally equilibrate to a point of equilibrium with its
environment
 Therefore, foods can adsorb or desorb water from the environment
 Desorption is when a “wet” food is placed in a dry environment
 Analogous to dehydration; but not the same
 Desorption implies that the food is attempting to move into equilibrium (ie. in a
package)
 Dehydration is the permanent loss of water from a food
 In both cases, the Aw decreases
 Desorption is generally a slow process, with moisture gradually decreasing
until it is in equilibrium with its environment.

 Adsorption is when a “dry” food is placed in a wet environment

 As foods gain moisture, the Aw increases
 The term “hygroscopic” is used to describe foods or chemicals that absorb
moisture
 A real problem in the food industry (lumping, clumping, increases rxn rates)
 Water Activity in Practice
 Bacterial growth and rapid deterioration
 High water activity in meat, milk, eggs,
fruits/veggies
 1.0-0.9

 Yeast and mold spoilage

 Intermediate water activity foods such as bread
and cheese
 0.75-0.9

 Analogous to a pH < 4.6, an Aw < 0.6 has the

same preservation effect
 Aw in Low Moisture Foods
 Water activity and its relationship with moisture
content help to predict and control the shelf life of
foods.
 Generally speaking, the growth of most bacteria is
inhibited at water activities lower than 0.9 and yeast
and mold growth prevented between 0.80 and 0.88.
 Aw also controls physiochemical reactions.
 Water activity plays an important role in the
dehydration process. Knowledge of absorption and
desorption behavior is useful for designing drying
processes for foods.
 How to “Control” water
 The ratio of free to bound water has to be altered
 You can either remove water (dehydration or
concentration)
 Can change the physical nature of the food
 Alter is color, texture, and/or flavor
 Or you can convert the free water to bound water
 Addition of sugars, salts, or other water-soluble agents
 You can freeze the food
 This immobilizes the water (and lowers the Aw)
 However, not all foods can be or should be frozen
 Frozen foods will eventually thaw, and the problem persists
 Water
 Water contains intramolecular polar covalent bonds
 Effects
 Boiling point
 Freezing point
 Vapor pressure
 Easy formation of H bonds with food molecules
 Properties of Water
 The triple point is the temperature and pressure at
which three phases (liquid, ice, and vapor)
coexist at equilibrium, and will transform phases
small changes in temperature or pressure.
 The dashed line is the vapor pressure of
supercooled liquid water.
Chemical and functional properties of water
 Solvation,dispersion, hydration
 Water activity and moisture
 Water as a component of emulsions
 Water and heat transfer
 Water as an ingredient
Freezing Foods

Controlling Water
Freezing
Greatly influenced the way we eat
 Freezing curves
 Water Freezes “Pure”
Frozen Foods
 Must be super-cooled to below 0°C
 Crystal nucleation begins
 Temperature rises to 0°C as ice forms
Refrigerated and Frozen Foods
The Market
 Meals and entrees
Annual Sales ($Billion)
 $83.7
 Meat, poultry, fish
 69.8
 Dairy, beverage
 21.9
 Fruits and veggies
 11.6
 Bakery products
 16.1
 Snacks, appetizers,
 15.8
and side dishes
 Freezing Foods
40
35 Freezing Point
30 20
Temperature

25 60
70
20 90
Super-cooling 95
15
Latent heat of 98
10 99
Crystallization 99.9
5
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
Freezing Time
Freezing
Freezing Food
 Require lower temp. to continue freezing
 Last portion of water is very hard to freeze
 Unfrozen water is a problem
***As long as unfrozen water is present in a
food, the temperature will remain near 0°C
due to the latent heat of crystallization.
Freezing
Quality changes during freezing
 Concentration effect = small amount of
unfrozen water
 Excess solutes may precipitate
 Proteins may denature
 pH may decrease
 Gases may concentrate (i.e. oxygen)
Freezing
Quality changes during freezing
 Damage from ice crystals
 Puncture cell membranes
 Large crystals cause more problems
Fast freezing much more desirable
 Less concentration effect
 Smaller ice crystals
Freezing
Final storage temperature
 -18°C is standard
 Safe microbiologically
 Limits enzyme activity
 Non-enzymatic changes are slow
 Can maintain fairly easily
 Good overall shelf-life
Freezing
Intermittent thawing
 Partial thawing, then refreezing
 Complete thawing does not have to occur
 Get concentration effect
 Get larger ice crystals as water re-freezes
Freezing
Factors determining freezing rate:
 Food composition
 Fat and air have low thermal conductivity,
slow down freezing
 This is a “buffering” effect.
Freezing
Ways to speed up freezing
 Thinner foods freeze faster
 Greater air velocity
 More intimate contact with coolant
 Use refrigerant with greater heat capacity
 High Pressure Effects
 Freezing is regarded as one of the best methods
for long term food preservation.
 The benefits of this technique are primarily from
low temperatures rather than ice formation.
 Freezing Foods
 Freezing can be damaging to food systems due to
 Formation of ice crystals (especially large ice crystals)
 Concentration of soluble solids
 Concentration of gasses (ie. oxygen)
 Intermittent thawing (poor temperature control)
 To reduce the chemical and mechanical damage to food systems during
freezing, technologies have been developed to freeze foods faster or under
high pressures. Benefits include:
 Higher density ice (less “space” between crystals from air or solids)
 Increased rate of freezing
 Smaller ice crystal formation
 Uniform crystal formation
 With high-pressure freezing the increasing pressure decreases the temperature
needed to freeze water, thus the ice nucleation rate increases.
 HP freezing generally involves cooling an unfrozen sample to -21C under high
pressures (300MPa) causing ice formation to occur.
 Another method involves pressure shift freezing where the food is cooled
under high pressures without causing freezing. Once the pressure is released,
the sample freezes instantly.
 The Phase diagram shows us the process which takes place as water is
added to a lipid system. It can be seen that the lipid phase transition
temperature falls with increasing water content. So,below that
particular temperature the chains are crystalline and when the
temperature is above it they are melted in a fluid condition. Note: The
phosphatidyl cholines bind a significant amount of water. This is said
to be 'bound' or 'unfreezable' water.
 Water content in a food system influences the rate of chemical
reactions by shifting reaction equilibria via LeChatelier's
principle or by the more subtle effect of changing the pH.
 Essentially, as water is removed those solutes involved in
degradation reactions are concentrated. These solutes are
responsible for the pH of the system.
 Back in 1923, two researchers, Corran and Lewis, showed that
the activity of the hydronium ions (-OH) increased with
increasing sucrose concentration.
 Basically the sucrose bound the water resulting in a decrease in
pH, or an increase in the acidity of a given solution.
 Recent research has demonstrated that reaction rate of amino
acid degradation reactions are pH dependent.
Dehydration and Concentration
of Foods

Controlling Water
 Dehydration and Concentration
Factors affecting drying rates
 Surface area
 Temperature
 Air velocity
 Humidity
 Pressure (vacuum)
 Solute concentration
 Amount of free and bound water
 Drying Curve of a Food
4.5
4
3.5 Water that is easily removed
Moisture Content

3
2.5
2
1.5 Water that is difficult to remove
1
0.5
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Time (Hrs)
Dehydration and Concentration
Quality changes
Browning
 Enzymes - sulfite will prevent
 Carmelization - lower temps. will limit
 Maillard reaction - reaction of sugars and
amino acids - lower temps will limit
 Acrylamide…???

Flavor changes
Carbohydrates in Foods

A general overview
CARBOHYDRATES
Classifications for the main categories of food carbohydrates are
based on their degree of polymerization.
Types of Carbohydrates
 CARBOHYDRATES
 Carbohydrates are carbon compounds that contain many
hydroxyl groups.
 The simplest carbohydrates also contain either an aldehyde
(these are termed polyhydroxyaldehydes) or a ketone
(polyhydroxyketones).
 All carbohydrates can be classified as either monosaccharides,
disaccharides, oligosaccharides or polysaccharides.
 An oligosaccharide is anywhere from about two to ten
monosaccharide units, linked by glycosidic bonds.
 Polysaccharides are much larger, containing hundreds of
monosaccharide units.
 The presence of the hydroxyl groups (–OH) allows
carbohydrates to interact with the aqueous environment and to
participate in hydrogen bonding, both within and between chains.
 CARBOHYDRATES
 SUGARS contain 2 important and very reactive
Functional groups:
 -OH (hydroxyl group)
 Important for solubility and sweetness
 -C=O (carbonyl group)
 Important for reducing ability and Maillard browning

 GLUCOSE is an ALDOSE sugar with one C atom

external to the 6-membered ring

 FRUCTOSE is a KETOSE hexose with two carbon

atoms external to the 6-membered ring
 Monosaccharides
 The monosaccharides commonly found in
foods are classified according to the
number of carbons they contain in their
backbone structures.
 The major food monosaccharides contain
six carbon atoms.
Carbohydrate Classifications
 Hexose = six-carbon sugars
 Glucose, Galactose, Fructose
 Fischer Projection of a-D-Glucose

Haworth Projection of a-D-Glucose

Chair form of a-D-Glucose

 Disaccharides
 Bonds between sugar units are termed glycosidic bonds,
and the resultant molecules are glycosides.
 The linkage of two monosaccharides to form
disaccharides involves a glycosidic bond. The important
food disaccharides are sucrose, lactose, and maltose.

Sucrose: prevalent in sugar cane and sugar beets, is composed

of glucose and fructose through an α-(1,2) glycosidic bond.
Lactose:

is found exclusively in the milk of mammals and consists of

galactose and glucose in a β-(1,4) glycosidic bond.
Maltose:

Is the major degradation product of starch, and is composed

of 2 glucose monomers in an α-(1,4) glycosidic bond.
 Polysaccharides
 Most of the carbohydrates found in nature occur in the
form of high molecular weight polymers called
polysaccharides.
 The monomeric building blocks used to generate
polysaccharides can be varied; in all cases, however,
the predominant monosaccharide found in
polysaccharides is D-glucose.
 When polysaccharides are composed of a single
monosaccharide building block, they are termed
homopolysaccharides.
 Starch

 Starch is the major form of stored carbohydrate

in plant cells.
 Its structure is identical to glycogen, except for
a much lower degree of branching (about every
20-30 residues).
 Unbranched starch is called amylose
 Branched starch is called amylopectin.
FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF CARBOHYDRATES

 Reducing sugars
 Browning reactions (caramelization and Maillard)
 Sweetness and flavors
 Crystallization
 Humectancy
 Inversion
 Oxidation and reduction
 Texturizing
 Viscosity
 Gelling (gums, pectins, other hydrocolloids)
 Gelatinization (Starch)
 Invert sugar
 Invert sugar is a liquid carbohydrate sweetener in which
all or a portion of the sucrose present has been inverted:
 The sucrose molecule is split and converts to an equimolar
mixture of glucose and fructose.
 Invert sugars have properties from sucrose; they help
baked goods retain moisture, and prolong shelf-life.
 Candy manufacturers use invert sugar to control
graining.
 Invert sugar is different from high fructose sweeteners

 SUCROSE + invertase enzyme  glucose + fructose

Sucrose

Where does sucrose come from?

Invert sugar
 Invert sugar is a liquid carbohydrate sweetener in which
all or a portion of the sucrose present has been inverted:
 The sucrose molecule is split and converts to an equimolar
mixture of glucose and fructose.
 Invert sugars have properties from sucrose; they help
baked goods retain moisture, and prolong shelf-life.
 Candy manufacturers use invert sugar to control
graining.
 Invert sugar is different from high fructose sweeteners

 SUCROSE + invertase enzyme  glucose + fructose

 Corn syrups
 Corn syrups are manufactured by treating corn starch
with acids or enzymes.
 Corn syrups, used extensively by the food industry and
in the home kitchen, contain primarily glucose
(dextrose) but other sugars as well.
 High-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) is made by treating
dextrose-rich corn syrup with enzymes (isomerase).
 The resulting HFCS is a liquid mixture of dextrose and
fructose used by food manufacturers in soft drinks,
canned fruits, jams and other foods.

 HFCS contains 42, 55, 90 or 99 percent fructose.

fructose
PROCESSING OF CORN STARCH  HFCS
 Corn starch is treated with α-amylase,
α-amylase of bacterial origin, to
produce shorter chains of sugars (dextrins) as starch fragments.

 Next, an enzyme called glucoamylase,

glucoamylase obtained from the fungus
Aspergillus niger, breaks the fragments down even further to
yield the simple sugar glucose.

 A third enzyme, glucose isomerase,

isomerase is expensive, and converts
glucose to various amounts of fructose.
 HFCS-55 has the exact same sweetness intensity as sucrose (cola)
 HFCS-42 is less sweet, used with fruit-based beverages and for baking

 Glucose isomerase is so expensive that it is commonly

immobilized on a solid-based “resin” bead and the glucose syrup
passed over it. Can be used many times over before it slowly
looses its activity.
 HFCS
 HFCS is selected for different purposes.
Selection is based on specific desired properties:

 Retain moisture and/or prevent drying out

 Control crystallization
 Produce a higher osmotic pressure (more molecules in solution) than
for sucrose
 Control microbiological growth

 Provide a ready yeast-fermentable substrate

 Blend easily with sweeteners, acids, and flavorings
 Provide a controllable substrate for browning and Maillard reaction.
 Impart a degree of sweetness essentially = to invert liquid sugars

 High sweetness
 Low viscosity
 Reduced tendency toward crystallization
 Costs less than liquid sucrose or corn syrup blends
 Retain moisture and/or prevent drying out of food product
 HFCS
 HFCS has the exact same sweetness and taste as an equal
amount of sucrose from cane or beet sugar. Despite being a
more complicated process than the manufacture of sugar, HFCS
is actually less costly.
 It is also very easy to transport, being pumped into tanker
trucks.
 Two of the enzymes used, α-amylase and glucose-isomerase,
are genetically modified to make them more thermostable.
thermostable
 This involves exchanging specific amino acids in the primary
sequence so that the enzyme is resistant to unfolding or
denaturing.
 This allows the industry to use the enzymes at higher
temperatures without loss of activity.
Starch
 Starches- #1 Hydrocolloid
 Hydrocolloids are substances that will form a gel or
add viscosity on addition of water.
 Most are polysaccharides and all interact with water.

 The most common is starch

 Starch is a mixture of amylose and amylopectin.

 The size distribution of these hydrocolloids is the most

important factor in the texture and physical features of
foods
 STARCH
Polymers of glucose
 AMYLOSE linear chain of glucose
 Glucose polymer linked α-1,4

 AMYLOPECTIN branched polymer of glucose

Amylose

Amylopectin
 AMYLOSE
 Linear polymer of glucose
 α 1 - 4 linkages
 Digestable by humans (4 kcal/g)
 250-350 glucose units on average
 Corn, wheat, and potato starch
 ~10-30% amylose
 AMYLOPECTIN
 Branched chain polymer of glucose
 α 1 - 4 and α 1 - 6 glycosidic linkages
 Fully digestable by humans
 1,000 glucose units is common
 Branch points every ~15-25 units
Starch

 Amylopectin (black)
 Amylose (blue)
 Modified Starches
 Gelatinization is the easiest modification
 Heated in water then dried.
 Acid and/heat will form “dextrins”
 α-Amylase
 hydrolyzes α (1-4) linkage
 random attack to make shorter chains
 β-Amylase
 Also attacks α (1 - 4) linkages
 Starts at the non-reducing end of the starch chain
 Gives short dextrins and maltose
 Both enzymes have trouble with α (1 - 6) linkages
DEXTRINS are considered to be hydrolysis products of
incompletely broken down starch fractions
Polysaccharide Breakdown Products
 What’s the difference between…?
 Maltose
 Maltitol
 Maltodextrins
 Dextrins
 Dextrans

 Maltose = glucose disaccharide

 Maltitol = example of a “polyol”
 Maltodextrins = enzyme converted starch fragments

 Dextrins = starch fragments (α-1-4) linkages produced by

hydrolysis of amylose

 Dextrans = polysaccharides made by bacteria and yeast

metabolism, fragments with mostly α (1 - 6) linkages
Maltodextrins and enzyme-converted starch:

STARCH fermentation SUGARS

ETHANOL

MODIFIED STARCHES

GELATINIZED STARCH alpha amylase Maltodextrins

Corn Syrups

Sugars
The smaller the size of the products in these reactions, the
higher the dextrose equivalence (DE), and the sweeter
they are

Starch DE = 0
Glucose (dextrose) DE = 100

Maltodextrin (MD) DE is <20

Corn syrup solids (CS) DE is >20

Low DE syrup alpha amylase MD beta amylase High

DE
Syrup
Hydrocolloids

Binding water with carbohydrates

“Gums”
 “Vegetable gum” polysaccharides are substances derived
from plants, including seaweed and various shrubs or trees,
have the ability to hold water, and often act as thickeners,
stabilizers, or gelling agents in various food products.

Plant gums - exudates, seeds

Marine hydrocolloids - extracts from seaweeds

Microbiological polysaccharides - exocellular polysaccharides

Modified, natural polysaccharides

 FUNCTIONS IN FOOD
 Gelatin
 Viscosity
 Suspension
 Emulsification and stability
 Whipping
 Freeze thaw protection
 Fiber (dietary fiber)
 Gut health
 Binds cholesterol
STRUCTURAL CONSIDERATIONS
 Electrical charge, pH sensitive
 Interactions with oppositely charged molecules
 Salts

 Low pH effects
 Chain length
 Longer chains are more viscous
 Linear vs Branched chains
 Inter-entangled, enter-woven molecules
 Gums
 GUAR (Guran Gum)
 Most used, behind starch, low cost
 Guar bean from India and Pakistan
 Cold water soluble, highly branched galactomannan
 Stable over large pH range, heat stable
 Thickening agent, not a gel
 Often added with xanthan gum (synergistic)
 XANTHAN
 Extracellular polysaccharide from Xanthomonas campestris
 Very popular, inexpensive from fermentations
 Forms very thick gels at very low concentrations
 Gums
 LOCUST BEAN
 Branched galactomannan polymer (like guar), but
needs hot water to solubilize
 Bean from Italy and Spain

 Jams, jellies, ice cream, mayonnaise

SEAWEED EXTRACTS
 Carrageenans (from red seaweed)
 Kappa (gel)
 Iota (gel)

 Lambda (thickener only)

 Milk, baking, cheese, ice cream

 Agar
 Alginates
 “Structural” Polysaccharides
Cellulose
 Polymer of glucose linked ß-1,4
Hemicellulose
 Similar to cellulose
 Consist of glucose and other monosaccharides
 Arabinose, xylose, other 5-carbon sugars
Pectin
 Polymer of galacturonic acid
 MODIFIED CELLULOSES
 Chemically modified cellulose
 Do not occur naturally in plants
 Similar to starch, but β-(1,4) glycosidic bonds
 Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) most common
 Acid treatment to add a methyl group
 Increases water solubility, thickening agent
 Sensitive to salts and low pH

 Fruit fillings, custards, processed cheeses, high

fiber filler
 PECTINS
 Linear polymers of galacturonic acid
 Gels form with degree of methylation of its carboxylic acid
groups
 Many sources, all natural, apple and citrus pomace
 Susceptible to degrading enzymes
 Polygalacturonase (depolymerize)
 Pectin esterases (remove methyl groups)
 Longer polymers, higher viscosity
 Lower methylation, lower viscosity
 Increase electrolytes (ie. metal cations), higher viscosity
 pH an soluble solids impact viscosity
PECTIC SUBSTANCES: cell cementing compound; fruits and vegetables;
pectin will form gel with appropriate concentration, amount of sugar and pH.

Basic unit comprised of galacturonic acid.

acid
Composition: polymer of galacturonic acids; may be partially esterified.
esterified

                                                                                                    
Pectic Acid

                                                                                                                  
Pectin Molecule
 Pectins
 Pectins are important because they form gels

 Mechanism of gel formation differs by the degree of esterification

(DE) of the pectin molecules
 DE refers to that percentage of pectin units with a methyl group attached

 Free COOH groups can crosslink with divalent cations

 Sugar and acid under certain conditions can contribute to gel

structure and formation

 LM pectin “low methoxyl pectin” has DE < 50% ; gelatin is

controlled by adding cations (like Ca++ and controlling the pH)

 HM pectin “high methoxyl pectin” has DE >50% and forms a gel

under acidic conditions by hydrophobic interactions and H-bonding
with dissolved solids (i.e. sugar)
Hydrophobic attractions between neighboring pectin polymer chains
promote gelation
 BETA-GLUCANS
 Extractsfrom the bran of barley and oats
 Long glucose chains with mixed ß-linkages
 Very large (~250,000 glucose units)
 Water soluble, but have a low viscosity
 Can be used as a fat replacer

 Responsible for the health claims (cholesterol) for

whole oat products
 Formulated to reduce the glycemic index of a food
 Others
CHITIN
 Polymer of N-Acetyl-D-glucosamine
 Found in the exoskeleton of insects and shellfish
 Many uses in industry, food and non-food.

INULIN
 Chains of fructose that end in a glucose molecule
 Generally a sweet taste
 Isolated from Jerusalem artichokes and chicory
 Act as a dietary fiber
 Potentially a pre-biotic compound
 COMPONENTS OF DIETARY FIBER

SOURCE
COMPONENT
Cellulose All food plants

All food plants, especially cereal

Hemicellulose
bran

Pectin Mainly fruit

Mainly cereals and 'woody'

Lignin
vegetables

Gums and some food Food additives in processed

thickeners foods
 HYDROCOLLOIDS
 A key attribute of gums is to produce viscous dispersions in water

 Viscosity depends on:

 Gum type
 Temperature
 Concentration of gum
 Degree of polymerization of gum
 Linear or branched polymers
 Presence of other substances in the system

 Solubility (dispersability in water) varies among gums

 Agar is insoluble in cold water; dissolves in boiling water

 Methylcellulose is insoluble in hot water, but soluble in cold !

Our First Browning Reaction

Caramelization
BROWNING REACTIONS in CARBOHYDRATES

 There are 2 different kinds of browning reactions with carbohydrates:

 Caramelization

 Maillard (or non-enzymatic) browning

 CARAMELIZATION occurs when sucrose is heated >150-170°C (high

heat!) via controlled thermal processing
 Dehydration of the sugar, removal of a water molecule

 The structure of caramelized sugar is poorly understood but can exist in

both (+) and (-) species
 Commonly used as a colorant

 (+) charged caramel = promotes brown color in brewing and baking

industries

 (-) charged caramel in beverage/ soft drink industry (cola and root beer)
 CARAMELIZATION
 What is referred to as “caramel pigment” consists of a
complex mixture of polymers and fragments of
indefinite chemical composition
 Caramelans (24, 36, or 125 carbon lengths)
 Since caramel is a charged molecule, to be compatible
with phosphoric acid in colas the negative form is used

 Caramel flavor is also due to these and other fragments,

condensation, and dehydration products.
 diacetyl, formic acid, hydroxy dimethylfuranone
Artificial and
Alternative Sweeteners
The perception of sweetness
is proposed to be due to a
chemical interaction that
takes place on the tongue
Between a tastant molecule
and tongue receptor protein

THE AH/B THEORY OF SWEETNESS

A sweet tastant molecule (i.e. glucose) is called the AH+/B-

“glycophore”.
glycophore
It binds to the receptor B-/AH+ site through mechanisms
that include H-bonding.
H-bonding
AH+ / B-
B γ
Glycophore

Hydrophobic interaction
AH

AH B γ

Tongue receptor protein molecule

For sweetness to be perceived, a molecule needs to have certain requirements.

It must be soluble in the chemical environment of the receptor site on the
tongue. It must also have a certain molecular shape that will allow it to bond
to the receptor protein.

Lastly, the sugar must have the proper electronic distribution. This electronic
distribution is often referred to as the AH, B system. The present theory of
sweetness is AH-B-X (or gamma). There are three basic components
to a sweetener, and the three sites are often represented as a triangle.
 Identifying the AH+ and B-
regions of two sweet tastant
molecules: glucose and saccharin.

Gamma (γ) sites are relatively hydrophobic functional groups

such as benzene rings, multiple CH2 groups, and CH3
WHAT IS SUCRALOSE AND HOW IS IT MADE?

Sucralose, an intense sweetener made from sugar,

is approximately 600 times sweeter than sugar. 

In a patented multi stage process three of the hydroxyl

groups in the sucrose molecule are selectively substituted
with 3 atoms of chlorine. 

This intensifies the sugar like taste while creating a safe,

stable low kcal sweetener with zero calories.

Although its chemical structure is very close to that of sucrose

(table sugar), sucralose is not recognized by the body as a carbohydrate
and has no effect on insulin secretion or overall carbohydrate metabolism
in healthy human beings.
Developers found that selective halogenations changed
the perceived sweetness of a sucrose molecule, with chlorine
and bromine being the most effective.

Chlorine, as a lighter halogen, retains higher water solubility,

so chlorine was picked as the ideal halogen for substitution. 

Sucrose portion

Fructose portion
Compared to sucrose, sucralose has three key molecular
differences that make it similar in structure, yet different in
metabolism and function.

These three differences are chlorine. Three chlorine atoms,

in the form of chloride ions, replace three hydroxyl groups in
native sucralose.

It was determined that the tightly bound chlorine

created a stable molecular structure, approximately
600 times sweeter than sugar.
In sucralose, the two chlorine atoms present in the fructose
portion of the molecule comprise the hydrophobic X-site,
which extends over the entire outer region of the fructose
portion of the sucralose molecule.

The hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions are situated on

opposite ends of the molecule, similar to sucrose,
apparently unaffected by the third chlorine on the C4 of
the pyranose ring.

The similar structure of sucralose to native sucrose is

responsible for its remarkably similar taste to sugar. 
 hydrophobic
Area (AH+): This area has hydrogens available to
hydrogen bond to chlorine attached to the glucose
bottom portion of the molecule.
hydrophilic

Area (B -): This area has a partially negative

oxygen available to hydrogen bond to the
partially positive hydrogen of an alcohol group.

hydrophilic

The drastically increased sweetness of sucralose is due

to the structure of molecule. In sucralose, the two chlorine
atoms present in the fructose portion of the molecule lead
to more hydrophobic properties on the opposite side of the
molecule (upper left), which extends over the entire outer
region of the fructose portion of the sucralose molecule.
In 2005 Coca-Cola released a new formulation of Diet Coke
sweetened with sucralose, called “Diet Coke with Splenda”.
 Wheat
Bran Corn
Removed

Milled,
Whole Polished
Wheat Rice
 Cereals
Cereals
 Starch, protein, fiber
 Water
 Lysine
 Structure
 Husk (inedible)
 Bran (fiber)

 Endosperm (starch, protein, oil)

 Germ (oil)
Wheat Kernel

Endosperm
Starch
Protein
Bran Oil
Fiber

Germ
Oil
Protein
Cereal Grain
Composition of Cereals
Wheat
2 types of wheat
 HARD = higher protein (gluten), makes
elastic dough, used for bread-making
 Higher“quality”
 High water absorption

 SOFT = lower protein (gluten), make weak

doughs/batters, used for cakes, pastries,
biscuits, cakes, crackers, etc.
 Lower “quality” due to lower protein content
and useful applications
Wheat
Wheat Milling
To produce flour
 Cleaned with air (dust, bugs, chaff)
 Soaked to 17% moisture - optimum for
milling
 Remove husk
 Crack seeds - frees germ from endosperm
 Wheat
Wheat Milling
 Rollers- two metal wheels turning in opposite
direction of each other
 Endosperm is brittle and breaks
 Germ and bran form flat flakes and are
removed by screens or sieves
 Endosperm = flour
 Less color and less nutrients as milling continues
 Whole wheat flour = do not remove all of the
bran and/or germ
Wheat Mill Grinding Rolls
Wheat Milling Sifters
Wheat
Wheat Enrichment
 Add B-vitamins and some minerals to most
white flours (since missing the bran)
Uses of flour
 Cakes, breads, etc.
 Pasta, noodles, etc.
 Course flour, not leavened
Rice Processing
 Rice
Rice Milling
 Most rice is "whole grain"
 Remove husk, bran, germ by rubbing with
abrasive disks or rubber belts
 Polish endosperm to glassy finish
 Brown rice = very little milling
 Rice

Rice Enrichment
 Add some vitamins, minerals
 Coat rice with nutrients (folic acid)
Parboiling or steeping (converted rice)
 Boil rice before milling (~10 hrs, 70°C)
 Nutrients, vitamins and minerals, will
migrate into endosperm (no fortification)
 Rice

Rice
Other rice products
 Quick cooking (instant) = precooked, dried
 Rice flour
 Sake (15-20% alcohol)
Advantages/Disadvantages of
Milling Rice
 Brown Rice
 Minimal milling
 Higher in lipid (shortens shelf-life)
 Higher in minerals (not removed in milling)

 White (Milled) Rice

 Extreme milling
 Vitamins and minerals removed (Thiamin)
 Fortification to prevent Beriberi disease
Anatomy of Corn
Corn
Corn
 Some fresh/frozen/canned corn, but most is milled
 Dry milling (grits, meal, flour)
 Adjust moisture to 21%- optimum for "dry" milling
 Loosen hull (pericarp) and germ by rollers
 Dry to 15% moisture
 Remove husk with air blast; germ and bran by sieving
 Continue grinding endosperm to grits, meal or flour
 Process very similar to wheat milling at this point.
 Grits = large particle size
 Meal = medium particle size
 Flout = small particle size
Grain Processing
Wet milling (corn starch, corn syrups)
 Soak corn
 Grind with water into a wet "paste"
 Slurry is allowed to settle and the germ
and hulls float to top (high in oil)
 Remainder is endosperm (starch/protein)
 Centrifuged or filtered
 to remove/collect the starch
Grain Processing
Wet milling (cont'd.)
 Dried starch = corn starch
 Can produce corn syrups from starch
 Use enzymes (amylase) to break starch into
glucose (corn syrup)
 Use another enzyme (isomerase) to convert
glucose into fructose (HFCS)
 Can also produce ethanol from corn syrup
Products from Corn
 Grain Usage
Other grains- mostly for animal feed
 Barley = used in beer
 Rye = can not use alone (poor protein quality)
 Oats = oatmeal, flakes

Breakfast cereals
 Made from many different grains
Baking
Ingredients
 Flour
 Starch

 Protein= gluten; forms elastic dough that will

expand during rising
Baking
Ingredients…
 Leavening agent
 Rising due to carbon dioxide or air
 Yeast = alcoholic fermentation produces
carbon dioxide
 Baking powder = chemical reaction that
releases carbon dioxide
Baking
…Ingredients
Leavening
 Air leavening = sponge cake
 Partial leavening = pie crusts, crackers
Eggs
 Add flavorings
 Add color
 Helps holds air when whipped
Baking
…Ingredients
 Shortening
 Tenderizes

 Hold air
 Sugar
 Tenderizes

 Sweetness

 Fermentable sugar
 Helps retain moisture
Baking
Oven baking
 Gas production and rising continues
 Denaturation and coagulation of proteins
 Drying and crust formation
 Flavor development
 Color development = Carmelization and
Maillard reaction
Baking
High altitudes
 Excessive gas production (less pressure)
 Weakens and collapses dough
 Not as bad for bread
Can alter formula
 Less baking powder
 Make tougher dough
 Add less tenderizers
Legumes and Oilseeds
Soybeans, peanuts, etc.
 Higher in oil (20-50%) and protein (20%)
 Methionine and/or cysteine are limiting
amino acids
 Protein complementation with cereals
Legumes and Oilseeds
 Soybeans = used for both oil and protein
 Peanuts = whole nut, oil, peanut butter