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 PHYSICS FOR COMPUTER
SCIENCE AND INFORMATION
TECHNOLOGY
21PH101

UNIT IV

SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS

Department: FIRST SEMESTER – CSE & IT

Batch/Year : 2021-2022 / I

Created by : DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, RMDEC

Date : 28-11-2021
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
S. No. CONTENTS

1 Course Objectives

2 Prerequisites

3 Syllabus

4 Course Outcomes

5 CO - PO/PSO Mapping

6 Lecture Plan

7 Activity Based Learning

Lecture Notes: Unit – IV Semiconductor Physics

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Classification of Solids (Metals, Semiconductors and

Insulators)

4.3 Types of Semiconductor

4.4 Intrinsic Semiconductor

8
4.5 Carrier Concentration of Intrinsic Semiconductor

4.6 Extrinsic Semiconductor

4.7 Hall Effect

Solved Problems

Other Learning Materials

Comprehensive Quiz

9 Assignment

10 Part A – Questions with Answers

S. No. CONTENTS

11 Part B – Questions

12 Supportive Online Certification Courses

13 Real Time Applications in Day to Day Life and to Industry

14 Contents Beyond the Syllabus

15 Prescribed Textbooks and Reference Books

16 Mini Project Suggestions

 COURSE OBJECTIVES

1. To learn the fundamental concepts of physics and apply this

knowledge to scientific, engineering and technological
problems.

2. To make the students enrich basic knowledge in electronics

and quantum concepts and apply the same in computing
fields.
 PREREQUISITES

1. Awareness of basic concepts of physics at higher secondary

school level.
2. Fundamental knowledge in mathematics on topics like
calculus (differentiation, integration), trigonometry and
geometry.
3. Trusting your intuition by applying basic common sense
4. Conceptual learning
5. Passion for understanding how things work, enjoy playing
with ideas
 SYLLABUS
COURSE CODE PHYSICS FOR COMPUTER SCIENCE AND L T P C
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
21PH101 (Common to CSE & IT) 3 0 0 3

UNIT I LASER AND FIBRE OPTICS 9

     
Population of energy levels – Einstein’s A and B coefficients derivation - Resonant
cavity - Optical amplification (qualitative) - Semiconductor lasers: homojunction and
heterojunction - Engineering applications of lasers in data storage (qualitative).
Fibre optics: Principle, numerical aperture and acceptance angle -V-number - Types
of optical fibres (Material, refractive index and mode) - Losses in optical fibre - Fibre
optic communication - Fibre optic sensors (pressure and displacement).
 
UNIT II MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 9
     
Magnetic dipole moment - atomic magnetic moments - Origin of magnetic moments-
Magnetic permeability and susceptibility - Magnetic material classifications-
Diamagnetism – Paramagnetism - Ferromagnetism –Antiferromagnetism -
Ferrimagnetism - Ferromagnetism: Domain Theory- M versus H behaviour - Hard and
soft magnetic materials - Examples and uses - Magnetic principle in computer data
storage - Magnetic hard disc (GMR sensor) - Introduction to Spintronics.
 
UNIT III ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 9
     
Classical free electron theory - Expression for electrical conductivity – Thermal
conductivity expression - Wiedemann-Franz law - Success and failures of CFT -
Particle in a three dimensional box - Degenerate states - Effect of temperature on
Fermi function - Density of energy states and average energy of electron at 0 K -
Energy bands in solids.
UNIT IV SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS 9
     
Intrinsic Semiconductors – Energy band diagram - Direct and indirect band gap
semiconductors - Carrier concentration in intrinsic semiconductors- Band gap
determination-Extrinsic semiconductors - n-type and p-type semiconductors
(qualitative) - Variation of Fermi level with temperature and impurity concentration -
Hall effect and its applications.
 
UNIT V  INTRODUCTION TO NANO DEVICES AND QUANTUM 9
COMPUTING
     
Introduction to nanomaterial -Electron density in bulk material - Size dependence of
Fermi energy - Quantum confinement - Quantum structures - Density of states in
quantum well, quantum wire and quantum dot structure - Band gap of nanomaterial-
Tunneling: single electron phenomena and single electron transistor - Quantum dot
laser. Quantum computing: Introduction - Differences between quantum and classical
computation.
 
TOTAL: 45 PERIODS
 COURSE OUTCOMES

On completion of this course, the students will gain knowledge and will be able to

CO1: Know the principle, construction and working of lasers and their
applications in fibre optic communication.

C02: Understand the magnetic properties of materials and their specific

applications in computer data storage.

C03: Analyze the classical and quantum electron theories and energy band
structures.

C04: Evaluate the conducting properties of semiconductors its applications in

various devices.

C05: Comprehend the knowledge on quantum confinement effects.

C06: Apply optical, magnetic, conducting properties of material, quantum

concepts at the nanoscale in various applications.
 CO – PO/PSO MAPPING

PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO
COs
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

CO1 3 2 3 2 - - - - - - - -

CO2 3 2 3 2 - - - - - - - -

CO3 3 2 3 2 - - - - - - - -

CO4 3 2 3 2 - - - - - - - -

CO5 3 2 3 2 - - - - - - - -

CO6 3 2 3 2 - - - - - - - -
 LECTURE PLAN
No.
Actual Taxono
S.N Topics to be of Pertaini Propos Mode of
Lecture my
o. Covered Perio ng CO ed Date Delivery
Date Level
ds
Introduction to
Semiconductors,
Energy band
PPT, Chalk
1 diagram and Direct 1 CO4 K1
& Talk
and indirect
bandgap
semiconductors
Introduction to
intrinsic
semiconductor PPT, Chalk
2 1 CO4 K2
Concentration of & Talk
electrons in the
conduction band
Concentration of
holes in the
valance band PPT, Chalk
3 1 CO4 K1
Effect of & Talk
temperature on the
Fermi energy level
Determination of
energy bandgap of PPT, Chalk
4 1 CO4 K2
intrinsic & Talk
semiconductor
Effect of
PPT, Chalk
5 temperature on 1 CO4 K3
& Talk
Fermi function
Extrinsic
semiconductor – n- PPT, Chalk
6 1 CO4 K1, K2
and p- type & Talk
semiconductors
Variation of Fermi
level with
PPT, Chalk
7 temperature and 1 CO4 K1
& Talk
impurity
concentration
Hall effect and its PPT, Chalk
8 1 CO4 K1, K2
applications & Talk
PPT, Chalk
9 Problems 1 CO4 K3
& Talk
 ACTIVITY BASED LEARNING
1. One experimental setup for the determination of bandgap, obtained from the
Physics lab, will be taken to the class. A demonstration will be given in detail to
determine the bandgap of a semiconductor. It would be interesting to visualize
the one which has been derived in the theory class.
2. Do a web investigation of semiconductors and photovoltaic cells using the
following websites:
http://www1.eere.energy.gov/solar/index.html
http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/diode.htm
http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/diode/diode_3.html
Use the information from the websites to answer the following questions:
a. What is the primary element used to make semiconductors?
b. Describe what it means to use doping in reference to silicon? Why is this
necessary?
c. Describe N-type doping.
d. Describe P-type doping.
e. Describe a diode and how it is used?
f. What is happening in a photovoltaic cell?
g. Describe some of the common uses of photovoltaic cells.
h. Why are photovoltaic cells an attractive way to produce electricity?

3. Go to the following website to access a simulation program for semiconductors:

http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Semiconductors
a. Start with a voltage of 0 V. Drag the p-type material to the lead attached to
the negative terminal of the battery. Drag the n-type material to the lead
attached to the positive terminal of the battery. Record any observations.
Increase the voltage 0.1 V at a time and record observations. Try to explain your
observations.
b. Do the same thing, but drag the p-type material to the lead attached to the
positive terminal of the battery. Drag the n-type material to the lead attached to
the negative terminal of the battery. Record your observations and give an
explanation for what you observed. Illustrations for simulation activity setup 
4.1 INTRODUCTION
We are living in the information age. Large amounts of information are transferred
over long distances through internet. The base for these technology revolution is the
invention of transistor and integrated circuit (IC) Fig 4.1.

Fig 4.1 Integrated circuit

IC products includes Wireless communication systems (Fig. 4.2a), including printers,

faxes, laptop computers, iPods (Fig. 4.2b), and of course the cell phones.

Intense research on silicon processing and increased automation in design and

manufacturing have led to lower costs, higher fabrication yields, and greater
reliability of integrated circuits. Integrated circuit are made of semiconducting
materials. Moreover semiconductor devices in which a controlled flow of electrons
can be obtained are the basic building blocks of all the electronic circuits. In the
following sections, we will introduce the basic concepts of semiconductor materials.

Fig 4.2 IC products a)wireless communications b) IPods

4.2 CLASSIFICATION OF SOLIDS (METALS,
CONDUCTORS AND SEMICONDUCTORS)
1. Based on electrical conductivity (σ) or resistivity

Table 4.1 Classification of solids on the basis of conductivity and resistivity

PROPERTY METALS SEMICONDUCTOR INSULATOR

Resistivity (ρ) 10–2 – 10–8 Ω m 10–5 – 106 Ω m 1011 – 1019 Ω m

Conductivity
102 – 108 Ω-1 m–1 105 – 10–6 Ω-1 m–1 10–11 – 10–19 Ω-1 m–1
(σ)

Table 4.1 explains the classification of solids on the basis of conductivity and
resistivity. Relative values of the resistivity are not the only criteria for distinguishing
metals, insulators and semiconductors from each other.

2. On the basis of energy bands

Inside the crystal, no two electrons see exactly the same pattern of surrounding
charges. Hence each electron will have a different energy level. These different
energy levels with continuous energy variation form what are called energy bands.
The energy levels of the valence electrons combine together to form the valence
band. The energy band above the valence band is called the conduction band. The
gap between the valence band and conduction band is said to be energy gap. With
no external energy, all the valence electrons will reside in the valence band.
Normally the conduction band is empty and valence band is filled. When the valence
band overlaps with conduction band, electrons can move freely into it and is
responsible for current conduction. This is the case with metallic conductors (shown
in Fig 4.3).
 Fig 4.3 Position of conduction band and valence band in a conductor

If there is some gap between the conduction band and the valence band, electrons
in the valence band all remain bound and no free electrons are available in the

conduction band. This makes the material an insulator (E g > 3 eV) (shown in Fig

4.4).

But some of the electrons from the valence band may gain external energy to cross
the gap between the conduction band and the valence band. Then these electrons
will move into the conduction band. At the same time they will create vacant energy
levels in the valence band where other valence electrons can move. Such materials
with less energy gap are called semiconductors (E g < 3 eV) (shown in Fig 4.5).

Fig 4.4 Position of conduction band and valence band in a insulator

Fig 4.5 Position of conduction band and valence band in a semiconductor

Table 4.2 given below explains the difference between conductor, semiconductor
and insulator.

Table 4.2 Difference between conductor, semiconductor and insulator

Characteristics Conductor Semiconductor Insulator

A conductor is a A semiconductor is a
An insulator is a
material that allows material whose
material that does
Definition the flow of charge conductivity lies
not allow the flow
when applied with a between conductor
of current.
voltage. and insulator

The resistance of a
semiconductor
The resistance of a Insulator has very
decrease with
Temperature conductor increases high resistance but
Dependence increases in
with an increase in it still decreases
temperature. Thus it
temperature. with temperature.
acts as an insulator at
absolute zero.
Characteristics Conductor Semiconductor Insulator

They have 
The conductors have
intermediate They have very low
very high conductivity 
conductivity (10-7 to conductivity (10-13 
(102 to 108 Ω-1 m-1), 
Conductivity 10-13 Ω-1 m-1), thus they Ω-1 m-1), thus they
thus they can conduct
can acts as insulator do not allow current
electrical current
and conductor at flow.
easily.
different conditions.

The conduction in The conduction in There are no free

conductors is due to semiconductor is due electrons or holes
Conduction
the free electrons in to the movement of thus, there is no
metal bonding. electron and holes. conduction.

The band gap in

The band gap of
There is no or low insulator is huge
semiconductor is
energy gap between (>5 eV), which
greater than the
the conduction & need an enormous
conductor but smaller
Band gap valance band of a amount of energy
than an insulator i.e. 1
conductor. It does not like lightning to
eV. Their electrons
need extra energy for push electrons into
need a little energy for
the conduction state. the conduction
conduction state.
band.

Normal (10-5Ω/m to  Very high

Resistivity Low (10-5 Ω/m)
10  Ω/m)
5
(105 Ω/m)

The coefficient of
It has positive
resistivity of an
coefficient of resistivity It has negative
Coefficient of insulator is
i.e. its resistance coefficient of
Resistivity also negative but it
increase with resistivity.
has very huge
temperature
resistance.
Characteristics Conductor Semiconductor Insulator

Some special
conductors turn into The insulator’s
superconductors The semiconductors resistance
At Absolute Zero when cooled down turn into insulator at increase when
to absolute zero absolute zero. cooled down to
while others have absolute zero.
finite resistance.

Valence Electron 1 Valence electron in 4 Valence electron in 8 Valence electron

in Outer Shell outer shell. outer shell. in outer shell.

Silicon, Germanium,
Selenium, Antimony,  Rubber, Glass,
Gold, Copper, Silver,
Examples Gallium Arsenide Wood, Air, Mica,
Aluminum etc
(known as semi Plastic, Paper etc.
insulator), Boron etc.

Semiconductors are The insulators are

The metals like iron
used every day used for
& copper etc. that
electronic devices such protection against
can conduct
as cellphone, high voltages &
Application electricity are made
computer, solar panel prevention of
into wires and cable
etc as switches, energy electrical short
for carrying electric
converter, amplifiers, between cables in
current.
etc. circuits.

4.3 TYPES OF SEMICONDUCTOR

4.3.1 BASED ON MATERIAL

4.3.1.1 ELEMENTAL SEMICONDUCTORS

The elemental semiconductor is made of single element from the fourth column of
the periodic table. They are also called as indirect band gap semiconductors.
Ex: Silicon and Germanium
4.3.1.2 COMPOUND SEMICONDUCTORS

Semiconductors formed by combinations of equal atomic fractions of fifth and third

column or sixth and second column elements are called compound semiconductors.
They are also called as direct band gap semiconductors.

Ex: GaAs, GaP, CdS, MgO etc.

4.3.2 BASED ON BAND GAP

4.3.2.1 INDIRECT BAND GAP SEMICONDUCTOR

In an indirect band gap semiconductor, the maximum energy of the valence

band occurs at a different value of momentum to the minimum in the conduction
band energy and is shown in Fig 4.6.

However, an electron must also undergo a significant change in its momentum for a
photon of energy Eg to produce an electron-hole pair in an indirect band gap
semiconductor. This is possible, but it requires such an electron to interact not only
with the photon to gain energy, but also with a lattice vibration called a phonon in
order to either gain or lose momentum.

The indirect process proceeds at a much slower rate, as it requires three entities to
intersect in order to proceed: an electron, a photon and a phonon.

Fig 4.6 Indirect band gap

The recombination process is much more efficient for a direct band gap
semiconductor than for an indirect band gap semiconductor, where the process must
be mediated by a phonon.

4.3.2.2 DIRECT BAND GAP SEMICONDUCTOR

The band gap represents the minimum energy difference between the top of the
valence band and the bottom of the conduction band. In a direct band gap
semiconductor, the top of the valence band and the bottom of the conduction
band occur at the same value of momentum, as in the schematic below in Fig 4.7.

A photon of energy Eg, where Eg is the band gap energy, can produce an electron-
hole pair in a direct band gap semiconductor quite easily, because the electron does
not need to be given very much momentum.

Fig 4.7 Direct band gap

4.3.3 BASED ON THE PRESENCE OF IMPURITY

Semiconductors are classified as,

(i) Intrinsic semiconductor

(ii) Extrinsic semiconductor

Intrinsic semiconductor and Extrinsic semiconductor are explained in detail in the

following sections.
4.4 INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
Pure semiconductors are called intrinsic semiconductors. Silicon and germanium are
the most common examples of intrinsic semiconductors. Both these semiconductors
are most frequently used in the manufacturing of transistors, diodes and other
electronic components. 

Intrinsic semiconductor is also called as undoped semiconductor or I-type

semiconductor. In intrinsic semiconductor the number of electrons in the conduction
band is equal to the number of holes in the valence band. Therefore the overall
electric charge of an atom is neutral.

4.4.1 ATOMIC STRUCTURE OF SILICON AND GERMANIUM

The atomic number of silicon is 14. Silicon atom has 14 electrons (two electrons in
first orbit, eight electrons in second orbit and 4 electrons in the outermost orbit). 

The atomic number of germanium is 32. Germanium has 32 electrons (2 electrons in

first orbit, 8 electrons in second orbit, 18 electrons in third orbit and 4 electrons in
the outermost orbit). Fig. 4.8 shows atomic structure of silicon and germanium.

4.4.2 COVALENT BONDING IN SILICON AND GERMANIUM

The outermost shell of atom is capable to hold up to eight electrons. The atom which
has eight electrons in the outermost orbit is said to be completely filled and most
stable. But the outermost orbit of silicon and germanium has only four electrons.
Both categories of atom needs four more electrons to become most stable. Silicon
atom forms four covalent bonds with the four neighboring atoms.

Fig. 4.8 Atomic structure of silicon and germanium

 Fig. 4.9 Covalent Bonding in Silicon and Germanium

Here this conditioned is achieved by sharing of electrons as shown in Fig. 4.9. In

intrinsic semiconductors free electrons are not present at absolute zero temperature.
Therefore intrinsic semiconductor behaves as perfect insulator and it could be
identified from the band diagram shown in Fig 4.10.

Fig. 4.10 Energy band diagram of an intrinsic semiconductor

4.4.3 FERMI LEVEL IN INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

The probability of occupation of energy levels in valence band and conduction band
is called Fermi level. At absolute zero temperature intrinsic semiconductor acts as
perfect insulator. However as the temperature increases free electrons and holes get
generated.
Fig.4.11 Energy band diagram showing Fermi level of intrinsic semiconductor

In intrinsic or pure semiconductor, the number of holes in valence band is equal to

the number of electrons in the conduction band. Hence, the probability of occupation
of energy levels in conduction band and valence band are equal. Therefore, the
Fermi level for the intrinsic semiconductor lies in the middle of forbidden band. Fermi
level in the middle of forbidden band shown in Fig 4.11 indicates equal concentration
of free electrons and holes..

4.4.4 ELECTRON AND HOLE CURRENT

In conductors current is caused by only motion of electrons but in semiconductors

current is caused by both electrons in conduction band and holes in valence
band. Current that is caused by electron motion is called electron current and current
that is caused by hole motion is called hole current. Electron is a negative charge
carrier whereas hole is a positive charge carrier. At absolute zero temperature
intrinsic semiconductor behaves as insulator. However, at room temperature the
electrons present in the outermost orbit absorb thermal energy. When the outermost
orbit electrons get enough energy then they will break bonding with the nucleus of
atom and jumps in to conduction band. The electrons present in conduction band are
not attached to the nucleus of an atom so they are free to move. When the valence
electron moves from valence band to the conduction band a vacancy is created in
the valence band where electron left. Such vacancy is called hole. Electron flow and
hole flow is clearly shown on Fig 4.12.
 Fig.4.12 Electron flow and hole flow

4.5 CARRIER CONCENTRATION IN INTRINSIC

SEMICONDUCTOR

4.5.1 EXPRESSION FOR DENSITY OF ELECTRON IN

CONDUCTION BAND

The number of electrons per unit volume in the conduction band is given by

𝑛𝑒 = ∫ 𝑍 ( 𝐸 ) 𝐹 ( 𝐸 ) 𝑑𝐸
…(4.1)

𝐸𝐶

Fig.4.13 Energy band diagram of an intrinsic semiconductor at 0 K and at

a finite temperature T
 ( )
3 /2
𝜋 8𝑚
𝑍 ( 𝐸 ) 𝑑𝐸 = 2
𝐸 1 /2 𝑑𝐸
2 h …(4.2)

where, is the density of electron states

is the Fermi function.

But, as you can see in Fig. 4.13, the conduction band energies varies from to . The
electron’s mass ‘m’ is replaced by its effective mass and is replaced by ().

( )
∗ 3/2 …(4.3)
𝜋 8𝑚𝑒 1/ 2
𝑍 ( 𝐸 ) 𝑑𝐸 = ( 𝐸 − 𝐸𝐶 ) 𝑑𝐸
2
We know that the Fermi function h
2

1 …(4.4)
𝐹 ( 𝐸 )=
1+ exp
(
𝐸 − 𝐸𝐹
𝑘𝐵 𝑇
is the energy of the Fermi level which is exactly at the centre of the forbidden
)
energy gap in the case of the intrinsic semiconductor and is the Boltzmann
constant.

But,

𝐸 − 𝐸 𝐹
Therefore, 𝑘 𝐵 𝑇
≫ 1

1 + exp ( 𝐸 − 𝐸𝐹
𝑘𝐵 𝑇 )
On substituting the above equation in (4.4) we get
≈ exp ( 𝐸 − 𝐸𝐹
𝑘𝐵 𝑇 )
1
𝐹 ( 𝐸 )=

It could be further rewritten as

exp
( 𝐸 − 𝐸
𝑘𝐵 𝑇
𝐹
)
…(4.5)
𝐹 ( 𝐸 ) =exp
( 𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸
𝑘𝐵 𝑇 )
On substituting eqn. (4.3) and (4.5) in eqn. (4.1) we get

( ) ( )
∞ ∗ 3 /2
𝜋 8 𝑚𝑒 𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸
𝑛𝑒 =∫
1 /2
( 𝐸 − 𝐸𝐶 ) 𝑑𝐸 exp …(4.6)
𝐸𝐶 2 h
2
𝑘𝐵 𝑇
To solve this integral, we take a substitution like,

If , then and if , then .

We also know that,

Substitute all the above values in eqn. (4.6), we get,

( ) ( )
∞ ∗ 3 /2
𝜋 8 𝑚𝑒 𝐸 𝐹 −( 𝐸 𝐶 + 𝑥 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 )
𝑛𝑒=∫ ( 𝑥 𝑘 𝐵 𝑇 ) 1/ 2 ( 𝑘 𝐵 𝑇 𝑑𝑥 ) exp …(4.7)
0 2 h2 𝑘𝐵 𝑇

On simplification we get

( ) ( )
∗ 3/ 2 ∞
𝜋 8 𝑚 𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸𝐶
𝑛𝑒 =
2 h2
exp
𝑘𝐵 𝑇
∫ 𝑥 1/ 2 exp (− 𝑥…(4.8)
) 𝑑𝑥
0

The integral in the above eqn. (4.8) will have the result as
∞
√𝜋
∫ 𝑥 1/ 2 exp ( − 𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 =
2
0

Then, the eqn. (4.8) becomes

( ) ( )
∗ 3/ 2

𝑛𝑒 =
𝜋 8 𝑚 𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
exp
𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸𝐶 √𝜋
2 h
2
𝑘𝐵 𝑇 2

( ) ( )
∗ 3 /2
2 𝜋 𝑚 𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 𝐸 𝐹 − 𝐸𝐶
𝑛𝑒 = 2 exp
h
2
𝑘 𝐵 𝑇 …(4.9)

The above eqn. (4.9) gives the number of electrons in the conduction band per unit
volume of a given intrinsic semiconductor.
4.5.2 EXPRESSION FOR DENSITY OF HOLES IN VALENCE BAND

The desnsity of holes in the valence band can be calculated similar to that for
electrons in the conduction band.

The density of holes in the valence band between the energy interval and .
𝐸𝑉

𝑛h = ∫ 𝑍 ( 𝐸 ) [ 1 − 𝐹 ( 𝐸 ) ] 𝑑𝐸
…(4.10)
−∞

where is the probability of finding a hole in the energy state .

[ ]
1
1 − 𝐹 ( 𝐸 ) =1 −
1+ exp
( 𝐸 − 𝐸𝐹
𝑘𝐵 𝑇 )
¿
[ 1 + exp
( 𝐸 − 𝐸
𝑘𝐵 𝑇
𝐹
)] − 1
…(4.11)
1 + exp
( 𝐸 − 𝐸
𝑘𝐵 𝑇
𝐹
)
Since at ordinary temperatures, for a semiconductor we have

𝐸 − 𝐸 𝐹
≪ 1
𝑘𝐵 𝑇

1 + exp ( 𝐸 − 𝐸𝐹
𝑘𝐵 𝑇 ) ≈ 1

Then eqn. (4.11) becomes

1 − 𝐹 ( 𝐸 ) =exp ( 𝐸 − 𝐸𝐹
𝑘𝐵 𝑇
…(4.12) )
We know that the density of holes in the valance band is

( )
3 /2
𝜋 8𝑚 1 /2
𝑍 ( 𝐸 ) 𝑑𝐸 = 2
𝐸 𝑑𝐸
…(4.13)
2 h
Electron mass is replaced by its effective mass ; is replaced by .
 ( )
∗ 3/2
𝜋 8𝑚h 1/2
𝑍 ( 𝐸 ) 𝑑𝐸 =
2 2 ( 𝐸𝑉 − 𝐸) 𝑑𝐸
…(4.14)
h

On substituting eqn. (4.12) and (4.14) in eqn. (4.10) we get

( )
𝐸𝑉

( )
3/ 2
𝜋 8 𝑚∗ 𝐸 − 𝐸𝐹
𝑛h =∫
h 1 /2
( 𝐸𝑉 − 𝐸 ) 𝑑𝐸 exp …(4.15)
−∞ 2 h
2
𝑘𝐵 𝑇

To solve this integral, we take substitution like,

If , , then and if , then .

We also know that,

Substitute the above values in eqn. (4.15), we get,

( ) ( )
0 ∗ 3/2
𝜋 8 𝑚h 𝐸 𝑉 − 𝑥 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 − 𝐸 𝐹
𝑛h =∫ ( 𝑥 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 ) 1/ 2 ( − 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 𝑑𝑥 ) exp
∞ 2 h
2
𝑘𝐵 𝑇 …(4.16)

On simplification,

( ) ( )
∗ 3 /2 ∞
𝜋 8𝑚 h 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 𝐸𝑉 − 𝐸𝐹
𝑛h =
2 h2
exp
𝑘𝐵 𝑇
∫ 𝑥1 /2 exp ( − 𝑥…(4.17)
) 𝑑𝑥
0

But,
∞
√𝜋
∫ 𝑥 1/ 2 exp ( − 𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 =
2
0

Then, eqn. (4.17) becomes

( ) ( )
∗ 3 /2

𝑛h =
𝜋 8 𝑚 h 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
exp
𝐸𝑉 − 𝐸𝐹 √𝜋
2 h
2
𝑘𝐵 𝑇 2

( ) ( )
∗ 3 /2
2 𝜋 𝑚h 𝑘 𝐵 𝑇 𝐸𝑉 − 𝐸𝐹
𝑛h =2 exp
h
2
𝑘 𝐵 𝑇 …(4.18)

The above eqn. (4.18) gives the number of holes in the valance band per unit
volume of a given intrinsic semiconductor.
4.5.3 INTRINSIC CARRIER CONCENTRATION ()

In intrinsic semiconductors,
where is called intrinsic carrier concentration.

Therefore,
𝑛2
𝑖 = 𝑛𝑒 𝑛 …(4.19)
h

On substituting eqn. (4.9) and (4.18) in eqn. (4.19), we get

[( ) ( )][ ( ) ( )]
∗ 3 /2 ∗ 3/2
2 2 𝜋 𝑚𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 𝐸 𝐹 − 𝐸𝐶 2 𝜋 𝑚h 𝑘 𝐵 𝑇 𝐸𝑉 − 𝐸𝐹
𝑛= 2
𝑖 exp 2 exp
h
2
𝑘𝐵 𝑇 h
2
𝑘 𝐵𝑇

( ) ( )
3
2 𝜋 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 3 /2 𝐸𝑉 − 𝐸𝐶
2
𝑛 =4
𝑖 2 ( 𝑚 ∗𝑒 𝑚∗h ) exp
𝑘𝐵 𝑇
h

On taking square root on both sides in the above equation, we get

( ) ( )
3 /2
2 𝜋 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 3/4 𝐸 𝑉 − 𝐸𝐶
𝑛𝑖 =2 2 ( 𝑚∗𝑒 𝑚∗h ) exp
2 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 …(4.20)
h

But, , which is the forbidden energy gap. On replacing with in eqn. (4.20) we get

…(4.21)

( ) ( )
3 /2
2 𝜋 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 ∗ 3/4 − 𝐸𝑔
𝑛𝑖 =2 2 (𝑚 ∗
𝑒 𝑚 h) exp
2 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
h
4.5.4 LAW OF MASS ACTION

The law of mass action states that the product of number of electrons in the
conduction band and the number of holes in the valence band is constant at a fixed
temperature and is independent of amount of donor and acceptor impurity added. 
Mathematically it is represented as
constant
where  is the intrinsic carrier concentration 
           is density of electrons in conduction band
           is density of holes in valence band.
4.5.5 FERMI LEVEL IN INTRINSIC SEMICONDUTOR

Since, in intrinsic semiconductors, eqn. (4.9) = eqn. (4.18)

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
3/2 3 /2
2 𝜋 𝑚∗𝑒 𝑘 𝐵 𝑇 𝐸 𝐹 − 𝐸𝐶 2 𝜋 𝑚∗h 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 𝐸𝑉 − 𝐸𝐹
2 exp =2 exp
h
2
𝑘𝐵 𝑇 h
2
𝑘𝐵 𝑇

( 𝑚∗
𝑒 )
3 /2
exp ( 𝐸 𝐹 − 𝐸𝐶
𝑘𝐵 𝑇 ) (
∗ 3 /2
= 𝑚h ) exp ( 𝐸𝑉 − 𝐸 𝐹
𝑘𝐵 𝑇 )
( ) ( )
3/ 2
𝐸 𝐹 − 𝐸𝐶 − 𝐸𝑉 + 𝐸𝐹 𝑚∗
h
exp =
𝑘𝐵 𝑇 𝑚∗
𝑒

( )( ) ( )
3/ 2
2 𝐸𝐹 𝑚∗h 𝐸𝑉 + 𝐸 𝐶
exp = exp
𝑘𝐵 𝑇 𝑚∗𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇

On taking logarithm on both sides of the above equation, we get

( )
∗
2 𝐸𝐹 3 𝑚h 𝐸 𝑉 + 𝐸𝐶
= log +
𝑘𝐵 𝑇 2 𝑚∗
𝑒
𝑘𝐵 𝑇

𝐸𝐹=
3 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
4
log
( 𝑚∗
𝑚
h
∗
𝑒
) +
𝐸 𝑉 + 𝐸𝐶
2 …(4.22)

If we consider that , then

𝐸𝑉 + 𝐸 𝐶
𝐸 𝐹 = …(4.23)
2

Fig 4.14 Fermi level in an intrinsic semiconductor

Thus Fermi level is located half way between the valence and conduction bands and
its position is independent of temperature. Since is slightly less than , is just above
the middle and rises slightly with increase in temperature as shown in the Fig. 4.14.

4.5.6 EXPRESSIONS FOR THE ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF

AN INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR AND ITS VARIATION WITH
TEMPERATURE

On the basis of free electron theory, the conductivity of metals is given by

…(4.24)
𝜎 =𝑛 𝑒 𝜇
But in the case of semiconductors, as there are two different types of charge
carriers, the expression for conductivity is written as

𝜎 =𝑛𝑒 𝑒 𝜇 𝑒 + 𝑛h 𝑒 𝜇 h
…(4.25)
𝜎 =𝑒 ( 𝑛 unit 𝜇
where is the number of electrons in𝑒 volume𝑒
+ 𝑛hband,
in the conduction
𝜇 h)
is the number of holes per unit volume in the valence band
is the mobility of electrons in the conduction band
is the mobility of holes in the valance band and
is the charge of an electron or hole (1.6 x 10 -19 C)

We know that in the case of intrinsic semiconductors, . So, eqn. (4.25) for the case
of intrinsic semiconductor becomes
…(4.26)
𝜎 =𝑛 𝑒 (𝜇
𝑖the expression for 𝑖from eqn. (4.21) in the
Substituting 𝑒 +𝜇 hwe get
above eqn. (4.26),
)
the expression for the electrical conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor as

…(4.27)

( ) ( )
3/ 2
2 𝜋 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 ∗ 3/4 − 𝐸𝑔
𝜎 𝑖 =2 𝑒 2 (𝑚
∗
𝑒 𝑚 h ) exp
2 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
(𝜇𝑒 +𝜇 h)
h
…(4.28)
𝜎 = 𝐶 exp
𝑖
where is a constant. ( − 𝐸𝑔
2𝑘𝐵 𝑇 )
 Fig 4.15 log i verses 1/T

Taking logarithm on both sides of eqn. (4.28), we get

𝐸 𝑔 …(4.29)
log ⁡(𝜎 ¿ ¿ 𝑖 )= log ( 𝐶 ) − ¿
2 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
A typical graph drawn between 1/T and log  is shown in Fig. 4.15. From the graph,
we understand that conductivity increases with increase in temperature.

4.5.7 BAND GAP DETERMINATION

We know that eqn. (4.28) is an expression for the conductivity of an intrinsic

semiconductor. On inverting the eqn. (4.28), we get an expression for the resistivity
of a semiconductor as

𝜌𝑖 =
1
𝐶
exp
( 𝐸𝑔
2 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 )
𝑅𝑖 𝐴
𝐿
=
1
𝐶
exp ( 𝐸𝑔
2 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 )
𝑅𝑖 =
𝐿
𝐴𝐶
exp ( 𝐸𝑔
2𝑘 𝐵 𝑇 )
𝑅𝑖 =𝐶 1 exp
where .
( 𝐸𝑔
2 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
…(4.30)
)
On taking logarithm on both sides we get

𝐸 𝑔 …(4.31)
log ⁡( 𝑅 ¿ ¿ 𝑖 )= log ( 𝐶 1 ) + ¿
2 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
 Fig 4.16 log Ri verses 1/T
Fig. 4.16 shows the plot of a curve between and . The slope of the curve gives the
value of .

From the graph,

𝑑𝑦 𝐸 𝑔
=
𝑑𝑥
Therefore,
2 𝑘𝐵

𝐸
𝐸𝑔𝑔=2
=2𝑘𝑘 × Slope
𝐵𝐵 ( 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥 ) …(4.32)

where is the Boltzmann constant.

4.5.7.1 EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF BANDGAP

A semiconductor specimen is immersed in an oil bath. The two ends of specimen are
connected in series with a battery, rheostat and an ammeter as shown in
Fig 4.17. A voltmeter is connected in parallel. Now, the initial temperature is noted
by using thermometer.

Fig 4.17 Experimental setup for determination of bandgap

A known voltage V is applied across the specimen and current is noted. The voltage
is kept constant. The experiment is repeated at different temperatures by heating
the oil and corresponding currents are measured.

The resistance of the semiconductor is calculated at different temperature by using

Ohm’s law. A graph is drawn between log Ri and 1/T. A straight line is obtained as
shown in Fig. 4.16. The energy gap is determined using the relation in equation
(4.32).

4.6 EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

The semiconductor in which impurities are added is called extrinsic
semiconductor. The process of adding impurities to the semiconductor is called
doping. Doping increases the electrical conductivity of semiconductor.  Therefore,
Extrinsic semiconductor has high electrical conductivity than intrinsic semiconductor.
Hence the extrinsic semiconductors are used for the manufacturing of electronic
devices such as diodes, transistors etc. The number of free electrons and holes in
extrinsic semiconductor are not equal.

4.6.1 CLASSIFICATION OF EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS

BASED ON THE TYPES OF IMPURITIES ADDED

Two types of impurities are added to the semiconductor. They are pentavalent and
trivalent impurities. Pentavalent impurity atoms have 5 valence electrons. When the
pentavalent impurity is added to an intrinsic or pure semiconductor (silicon or
germanium), then it is said to be a n-type semiconductor The various examples of
pentavalent impurity atoms include phosphorus (P), arsenic (As), antimony (Sb), etc.

4.6.1.1 N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR

The atomic structure of pentavalent atom (phosphorus) is shown in the Fig. 4.18.
 Fig 4.18 Atomic structure of pentavalent atom (Phosphorus)

Phosphorus atom has 15 electrons (2 electrons in first orbit, 8 electrons in second

orbit and 5 electrons in the outermost orbit). An n-type semiconductor is created
when pure semiconductors, like Si and Ge, are doped with pentavalent elements.

As can be seen in the Fig.4.19, when a pentavalent atom takes the place of a Si
atom, four of its electrons bond with four neighbouring Si atoms. However, the fifth
electron remains loosely bound to the parent atom. Hence, the ionization energy
required to set this electron free is very small. Thereby, this electron can move in
the lattice even at room temperature.

To give you a better perspective, the ionization energy required for silicon at room
temperature is around 1.1 eV. On the other hand, by adding a pentavalent impurity,
this energy drops to around 0.05 eV.

Fig 4.19 Bonding in n-type semiconductor

CARRIER CONCENTRATION IN N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS

N-type semiconductors are extrinsic semiconductors doped with pentavalent impurity

atoms. The carrier concentration in n-type semiconductors is given as

( ) ( )
∗ 𝟑/ 𝟒
𝟏/ 𝟐 𝟐 𝝅 𝒎𝒆 𝒌𝑩 𝑻 𝑬 𝒅− 𝑬 𝑪
𝒏= ( 𝟐 𝑵 𝒅 ) 𝒆𝒙𝒑
𝒉𝟐 𝟐 𝒌𝑩 𝑻
where is the donor concentration,
is the donor energy level.

In an n-type semiconductor, at any finite temperature

Density of free electrons (ne) >> Density of holes (nh)

4.6.1.2 P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR

Trivalent impurity atoms have 3 valence electrons. When the trivalent impurity is
added to an intrinsic or pure semiconductor (silicon or germanium), then it is said to
be a p-type semiconductor. The various examples of trivalent impurities include
boron (B), gallium (Ga), indium (In), aluminium (Al). 

Boron atom has 5 electrons (2 electrons in first orbit and 3 electrons in the
outermost orbit). The atomic structure of trivalent atom (boron) is shown in below
Fig. 4.20.

Fig 4.20 Atomic structure of trivalent atom (boron)

 Fig 4.21 Trivalent atom boron is added as impurity in silicon

In the fourth covalent bond, only silicon atom contributes one valence electron,
while the boron atom has no valence electron to contribute. Thus, the fourth
covalent bond is incomplete with shortage of one electron. This missing electron is
called hole. This shows each boron atom accept one electron to fill the hole.
Therefore, all the trivalent impurities are called acceptors. A small addition of
impurity (boron) provides millions of holes.

In a nutshell, when a semiconductor is doped with a trivalent atom, holes are the
majority charge carriers. On the other hand, the free electrons are the minority
charge carriers. Therefore, such extrinsic semiconductors are called p-type
semiconductors.

In a p-type semiconductor, at any finite temperature

Density of holes (nh) >> Density of free electrons (n e)

CARRIER CONCENTRATION IN P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS

P-type semiconductors are extrinsic semiconductors doped with trivalent impurity

atoms. The carrier concentration in p-type semiconductors is given as

( ) ( )
∗ 𝟑/ 𝟒
𝟏/ 𝟐 𝟐 𝝅 𝒎𝒉 𝒌 𝑩 𝑻 𝑬 𝑽 − 𝑬𝒂
𝒑 =( 𝟐 𝑵 𝒂 ) 𝒆𝒙𝒑
𝒉
𝟐
𝟐 𝒌𝑩 𝑻
where is the donor concentration,
is the donor energy level.
 Fig 4.22 Variation of Fermi level with respect to temperature in n-type
semiconductor

4.6.2 VARIATION OF FERMI LEVEL WITH TEMPERATURE AND

IMPURITIES (N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR)

In case of Intrinsic, Fermi level is located half way between the valence and
conduction bands and its position is independent of temperature. In case of N-type
semiconductor, Initially with increase in temperature, E F increases slightly. As
temperature increases, more number of donors are ionized. Further increase in
temperature results in generation of electron- hole pairs due to breaking of covalent
bonds and the Fermi level moves gradually towards the intrinsic Fermi level E Fi.

Comparing the behavior of a N-type semiconductor of higher donor concentration

with a lower one, we find that lowering of Fermi level from E F to Fermi level EFi with
rise of temperature is slow in the case of higher donor concentration material than
the lower one as shown in Fig. 4.22. Naturally higher doped semiconductor will
behave in intrinsic manner only after all the donor atoms are ionized.

4.6.3 VARIATION OF FERMI LEVEL WITH TEMPERATURE AND

IMPURITIES (P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR)

In case of P-type semiconductor, initially with increase in temperature, E F decreases

slightly. As temperature increases, more number of acceptor levels is filled. Further
 Fig 4.23 Variation of Fermi level with respect to temperature and
impurity in p-type semiconductor

increase in temperature results in generation of electron- hole pairs due to breaking

of covalent bonds and the Fermi level moves gradually towards the intrinsic Fermi
level EFi as shown in Fig 4.23.

Comparing the behavior of a p-type semiconductor of higher acceptor concentration

with a lower one, we find that rising of Fermi level from E F to intrinsic Fermi level EFi
with rise of temperature is slow in the case of higher acceptor concentration material
than the lower one. Naturally higher doped semiconductor will behave in intrinsic
manner only after all the donor atoms are ionized.

4.7 HALL EFFECT

When a magnetic field is applied perpendicular to a current carrying conductor or
semiconductor, a voltage is developed across the specimen in a direction
perpendicular to both the current and the magnetic field directions. This
phenomenon is called as Hall Effect. The voltage developed across the ends is called
as Hall Voltage.
 Fig 4.24 Hall effect
4.7.1 HALL CO-EFFICIENT FOR N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR

Consider an n-type semiconducting material in the form of a rectangular slab.

Current flow is on +X direction from left to right; magnetic field is on the z direction
from front to rear: Hall voltage - y direction from top to bottom.

Under equilibrium condition, the force on the electrons due to magnetic field is
balanced by the electric field due to the Hall voltage, i.e.,

Force due to Hall electric field = Force due to magnetic field

− 𝑒 𝐸 𝐻 =− 𝑒𝑣𝐵
…(4.33)
𝐸 𝐻 = 𝑣𝐵
In a uniform sample, the electric current density () is related to the velocity as

𝐽 = − 𝑛𝑒𝑣
where is the concentration of electrons.
𝐽 …(4.34)
𝑣 =−
𝑛𝑒
Substitute eqn. (4.34) in (4.33)
𝐽𝐵
𝐸 𝐻 = −
𝑛𝑒
This can be written as
…(4.35)
𝐸 𝐻 = 𝐵𝐽 𝑅𝐻
where is called the Hall coefficient.

The negative sign indicates that the developed field is in the negative y direction.
4.7.2 HALL COEFFICIENT FOR P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR

Under equilibrium condition, the force on the holes due to magnetic field is balanced
by the electric field due to the Hall voltage, i.e.,

Force due to Hall electric field = Force due to magnetic field

𝑒 𝐸 𝐻 = 𝑒𝑣𝐵
𝐸 𝐻 = 𝑣𝐵 …(4.36)

In a uniform sample, the electric current density () is related to the velocity as

𝐽 = 𝑝𝑒𝑣
where is the concentration of holes.
𝐽
𝑣 =
𝑝𝑒…(4.37)
Substitute eqn. (4.37) in (4.36)
𝐽𝐵
𝐸 𝐻 =
𝑝𝑒
This can be written as
𝐸 𝐻 = 𝐵𝐽 𝑅𝐻
…(4.38)

where is called the Hall coefficient.

4.7.3 DETERMINATION OF HALL COEFFICIENT

The Hall field per unit current density per unit magnetic induction is defined as the
Hall coefficient.
The Hall coefficient is determined by measuring the Hall voltage that generates the
Hall field. Let ‘’ be the thickness of the sample and be the Hall voltage, then
𝑉 𝐻 = 𝐸 𝐻 𝑡
…(4.39)
where is the Hall field.

We already have derived the expression for in eqn. (4.35) and (4.38). Using eqn.
(4.35) or (4.38) in eqn. (4.39) we get
𝑉 𝐻 = 𝐵𝐽 𝑅𝐻 𝑡
…(4.40)

For a current flowing through a area of cross section , the current density, can be
written as
𝐼 𝐼
𝐽 = =
𝐴 𝑏𝑡
where is the breadth and is the thickness.

On substituting the expression for current density in eqn. (4.40) we get

𝐵 𝐼 𝑅𝐻 𝑡
𝑉 𝐻 =
𝑏𝑡
𝑉 𝐻 𝑏
𝑅 𝐻 = …(4.41)
𝐵𝐼

4.7.4 EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF HALL COEFFICIENT

The experimental set up for the measurement of Hall voltage is shown in the Fig.
4.26. ‘’ is the thickness and ‘’ is the breadth of the sample. A suitable current is
allowed to pass through this sample along the X axis by connecting it to a battery.

The sample is placed between the pole pieces of an electromagnet such that the
applied magnetic field coincides with the z-axis.

Hall voltage () developed in the sample is measured by fixing two probes at the
centres of the bottom and top faces of the sample.

By measuring Hall voltage, Hall coefficient is calculated from the formula

𝑉 𝐻 𝑏
𝑅 𝐻 =
𝐵𝐼

Fig 4.26 Hall effect experimental setup

4.7.5 APPLICATIONS OF HALL EFFECT

1. Determination of semiconductor type

For an n-type semiconductor, Hall coefficient is negative and for p-type
semiconductors, it is positive. Thus, the sign of the Hall coefficient is used to
determine whether a given semiconductor is n-type or p-type.

2. Calculation of carrier concentration

By knowing Hall coefficient R H, the carrier concentration can be determined from
1
𝑛=
𝑒 𝑅 𝐻

3. Determination of mobility
The mobility of charge carriers can be obtained if conductivity is known.

By measuring the conductivity and Hall coefficient, the mobility can be found out.

4. Magnetic field meter

Hall voltage VH for a given current is proportional to B. Hence measurement of V H
measures the magnetic field B.

5. Hall effect multiplier

This instrument gives an output proportional to the product of two signals. Thus
if current is made proportional to one input and if is made proportional to the
other input, then the Hall voltage is proportional to the product of the two
inputs.
 Key Points to Remember
 Semiconductor is one whose electrical properties lie between that of insulators
and good conductors.
 Impurity addition or thermal excitation increases the electrical conductivity in
semiconductors.
 Semiconductor classified based on Composition are (i) Elemental semiconductors
(ii) Compound semiconductors
 Semiconductor classified based on Purity are (i) Intrinsic semiconductor (ii)
Extrinsic semiconductor
 Extrinsic semiconductors are formed by adding suitable impurities (dopants) to the
intrinsic semiconductor. This process of adding impurities is called doping
 Depending on the type of impurity added, the extrinsic semiconductors can be
divided into two classes: n-type and p-type.
 When the conduction-band minimum also occurs at k =0, the semiconductor is
said to be a direct bandgap semiconductor. At non-zero k, the semiconductor is an
indirect-bandgap semiconductor.
 Electron and hole concentrations are equal in an intrinsic semiconductor and are
called as the intrinsic carrier concentration .
 Mobility is the velocity acquired by the electron or hole under unit potential
gradient.
 Electrical conductivity depends on the negative exponential of the forbidden
energy gap Eg and the mobilities of both holes and electrons.
 Variation of electron concentration with temperature has three different ranges,
namely (i) impurity range (ii) exhaustion range (iii) intrinsic range
 When a current carrying electrical specimen is placed in a magnetic field, a
voltage sometimes develops between one side of the conductor and the other –
Hall effect.
 Hall effect is significant due to its ability to determine the (i) sign of charge
carriers (ii) number of charge carriers (iii) conductivity σ and mobility µ
simultaneously (iv) distinguish between metals, semiconductors and insulators (v)
magnetic field.
 SOLVED PROBLEMS

1. Calculate the intrinsic concentration of charge carriers at 300 K given

that and the value of band gap 0.67 eV.

Solution:

Given:

= 0.12 m0 = 0.12  9.1  10-31 = 1.092  10-31 kg

= 0.28 m0 = 0.28  9.1  10-31 = 2.548  10-31 kg

Intrinsic carrier concentration is given by

( ) ( )
3 /2
2 𝜋 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 3/4 − 𝐸𝑔
𝑛𝑖 =2 2 ( 𝑚∗𝑒 𝑚∗h ) exp
2 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
h

( ) ( )
3 /2 3/2
2 𝜋 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 2 𝜋 × 1.38 ×10
− 23
× 300
2 2
=2 2
h ( 6.626 ×10 −34 )
3/ 2
¿ 2 ( 5.925 ×10 )
46 70
= 2× 1.442×10
¿ 2 . 884 ×10 70
3/4
( 𝑚∗𝑒 𝑚 ∗h ) =( 1.092  10 −31   2.548  10 −31 )
3/4

¿ ( 2.782 10 − 62 ) 3/ 4
¿ 6 . 813 10 − 47

exp ( − 𝐸𝑔
2 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 )
=exp − (
0.67 × 1.6 ×10 −19
−23
2 ×1.38 × 10 × 300 )
¿ exp ( −1 2 . 947 )
¿ 2 .284 × 10− 6

𝑛𝑖 =2.884 × 1070 × 6.813  10 −47 ×2.284 × 10− 6

¿ 2. 341× 1018 m− 3
2. The intrinsic carrier density is 1.5  1016 m-3. If the mobility of electron and
hole are 0.13 and 0.05 m2 V-1s-1, calculate the conductivity.
Solution
Given: ni = 1.5  1016 m-3

µe = 0.13 m2 V-1 s-1

µh = 0.05 m2 V-1 s-1

Conductivity  = nie (µe + µh)

= 1.5  1016  1.6  10-19 (0.13 + 0.05)
Conductivity  = 4.32  10-4 -1 m-1

3. The intrinsic carrier density at room temperature in Ge is 2.37  1019 m-3 if

the electron and hole mobilities are 0.38 and 0.18 m 2 V-1 s-1, respectively,
calculate the resistivity.

Solution:
Given
ni = 2.37  1019 m3

µe = 0.38 m2 V-1 s-1

µh = 0.18 m2 V-1 s-1

Conductivity  = nie (µe + µh)

= 2.37  1019  1.6  10-19 (0.38 + 0.18)
= 2.1235 -1 m-1
Resistivity  =
=
Resistivity  = 0.4709  m

4. The Hall coefficient of certain silicon specimen was found to be -7.35  10-5
m3 C-1 from 100 to 400 K. Determine the nature of the semiconductor. If the
conductivity was found to be 200 -1 m1. Calculate the density and mobility of
the charge carrier.

Solution

Given: Conductivity  = 200 -1 m-1

Hall co-efficient RH = -7.35  10-5 m3 C-1
a) Density of electrons
−1
𝑛=
𝑅𝐻 𝑒
−1
¿ −5 −19
− 7.35 ×10 ×1.609 × 10

¿ 8.455 × 10 22 m − 3
b) Mobility
𝜎
𝜇=
𝑛𝑒
200
¿ 22 − 19
8.455 × 10 × 1.609 ×10

Density of electrons (n) = 8.053  1022 m-3

Mobility (µ) = 0.0147 m2 V-1 s-1

5. For an intrinsic semiconductor with a band gap of 0.7 eV. Determine the
position of EF at T = 300 K if = 6.

Solution
Bandgap Eg = 0.7 eV
Temperature, T = 300 K
Fermi energy for an intrinsic semiconductor
𝐸𝐹=
3 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
4
log
( 𝑚∗
h

𝑚𝑒
∗ )
+
𝐸𝑔
2

(
6 𝑚∗
)
− 23
3 × 1.38 × 10 × 300 𝑒 0.7
¿ × log +
4 × 1.6 × 10
19
𝑚𝑒
∗
2

¿ 0.0194 × log ( 6 ) +0 .35

¿ 0.3847 eV
Fermi energy level EF = 0.3847 eV
6. A semiconducting crystal with 12 mm long, 5 mm wide and 1 mm thick
has a magnetic density of 0.5 Wb m -2 applied from front to back
perpendicular to largest faces. When a current of 20 mA flows length wise
through the specimen, the voltage measured across its width is found to
be 37 µV. What is the Hall coefficient of this semiconductor?

Solution

Given
Hall voltage, VH = 37 µV = 37  10-6 V
Breath of the sample, t = 1 mm = 1  10-3 m
Current, IH = 20 mA = 20  10-3 A

Magnetic flux density, B = 0.5 Wb m -2

Hall coefficient RH of the semiconductor can be determined as follows,
𝑉 𝐻𝑡
𝑅 𝐻=
𝐼𝐻 𝐵
37 × 10− 6 × 1× 10− 3
¿ −3
20 × 10 × 0.5
¿ 3 . 7 × 10− 6 C − 1 m 3

7. Find the resistance of an intrinsic Ge rod 1 mm long, 1 mm wide and 1

mm thick at 300 K, the intrinsic carrier density 2.5  1019 m-3 is at 300 K
and the mobility of electron and hole are 0.39 and 0.19 m 2 V-1 s-1.

Solution

Given:
Length of Ge rod l = 1 mm = 1  10-3 m
Breadth b = 1 mm = 1  10-3 m
Thickness t = 1 mm = 1  10-3 m
Intrinsic carrier concentration ni = 2.5  1019 m-3

Mobility of electron µe = 0.39 m2 V-1 s-1

Mobility of hole µh = 0.19 m2 V-1 s-1  

a) Conductivity
 = nie(µe + µh)
= 2.5  1019  1.6  10-19 (0.39 + 0.19)
 = 2.32 -1 m-1
b) Resistance
𝑙
𝑅=
𝜎 𝐴
1 ×10− 3
¿ −3 −3
2.32 ×(1× 10 × 1× 10 )


8. Hall coefficient of a specimen of doped silicon found to be 3.66  10-4 m3

C-1. The resistivity of the specimen is 8.93  10-3  m. Find the mobility and
density of the charge carriers.
Solution
Hall coefficient, RH = 3.66  10-4 m3 c-1
Resistivity , = 8.93  10-3  m

Since the Hall coefficient, RH is positive, the doped silicon must be a p-type
semiconductor.

Now the density of holes in the material can be calculated as follows

1
𝑝=
𝑅𝐻 𝑒
1
¿ −4 −19
3.66 ×10 ×1.6 × 10
¿ 1. 708 × 10 22 m − 3
Having found the density of holes in the material, the hole mobility can be calculated
as follows 1
𝜇 h=
𝜌 𝑛𝑒
1
¿ −3 22 −19
8.93 ×10 × 1.7076 ×10 ×1.6 × 10
¿ 0.041 m 2 V − 1 s− 1
9. The intrinsic carrier density of a semiconductor is 2.1  1019 m-3. The electron
and hole mobilities are 0.4 and 0.2 m2 V-1 s-1 respectively. Calculate the
conductivity.

Solution
Given data

Intrinsic carrier concentration, ni = 2.1  1019 m-3

Mobility of electron µe = 0.4 m2 V-1 s-1

Mobility of hole µh = 0.2 m2 V-1 s-1

Conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor can be determined as follows

 = ni e (µe + µh)

= 2.1  1019  1.6  10-19  (0.4 + 0.2)

= 2.016 -1 m-1

10. The electron mobility and hole mobility is Si are 0.135 m2 V-1 s-1 and 0.04 m2
V-1 s-1 respectively at room temperature. If the carrier concentration is 1.5 
1016 m-3. Calculated the resistivity of Si at room temperature.

Solution
Given data

Carrier concentration, ni = 1.5  1016 m-3

Mobility of electron µe = 0.135 m2 V-1 s-1

Mobility of hole µh = 0.048 m2 V-1 s-1

Electrical conductivity can be calculated as follows

 = ni e (µe + µh)

= 1.5  1016  1.6  10-19  (0.135 + 0.048)

= 0.4392  10-3 -1 m-1

Electrical resistivity,  is just the inverse of the electrical conductivity and can be calculated
as follows
 = 1/
= 1/ 0.4392  10-3
= 2.2768  m
 OTHER LEARNING MATERIALS
YOUTUBE LINK

1. Density of electron-Intrinsic

2. Density of holes - Intrinsic

3. Density of charge carriers- Intrinsic

4. Hall effect

5. AT&T Archives: Dr. Walter Brattain (Nobel Prize winner Walter Brattai
n, co-inventor of the transistor) on Semiconductor Physics

MIT Courseware

Semiconductors

NanoHUB

https://nanohub.org/resources/5221

Lecture Notes

Semiconductor Physics

E-books
Fundamental Principles of Semiconductors – Edward F. Gurnee
Semiconductor device fundamentals – Robert F. Pierret
 COMPREHENSIVE QUIZ
After completing the course, students are instructed to take the following quiz to
quantify their understanding of the concepts on the semiconducting materials.

1. https://forms.gle/zWVQL99mVjjWFwKp9

2. https://forms.gle/jvftuDcCA5FT8PLi6

RESULTS

Repeat your learning, if your score is less than 60%.

Congratulations, if your score is above 90%.

54
 ASSIGNMENT PROBLEMS
1. Find the resistance of an intrinsic germanium rod 1 cm long, 1 mm wide and 1 mm
thick at 300 K. the intrinsic carrier density is 2.5 × 10 19 m–3 at 300 K and the mobility
of electron and hole are 0.39 and 0.19 m 2 V–1 s–1. (Ans: 4.31 × 103
Ω)

2. Calculate the position of Fermi level E F and the conductivity at 300 K for germanium
crystal containing 5 × 10 22 arsenic atoms / m3. Also calculate the conductivity if the
mobility of the electron is 0.39 m 2 V–1 S–1 .
(Ans : EF is 0.16 eV below Ec, σ = 3210 𝝮-1 m-1)

3. In a Hall experiment a current of 25 A is passed through a long foil of silver which is

0.1 mm thick and 3 cm wide. If the magnetic field of flux density 0.14 Wb/m 2 is
applied perpendicular to the foil, calculate the Hall voltage development and estimate
the mobility of electrons in silver. The conductivity and the Hall coefficient are 6.87 x
107 Ω-1 m-1 and –8.4 × 10–11 m3 C-1, respectively.
(Ans : 2.94 μV and 57.7 × 10–4 m2 V–1)

4. The intrinsic carrier density at room temperature in Ge is 2.37 × 10 19 m3. If the

electron and hole motilities are 0.38 and 0.18 m 2 V-1 s-1 respectively, calculate its
resistivity. (Ans : 0.0471 𝝮 m)

5. For silicon semiconductor with band gap 1.12 eV, determine the position of the Fermi
level at 300 K, if me*=0.12m0 and mh*=0.28m0 (Ans : 0.576 eV)
PART A – QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS

1. State the properties of a semiconductor. (K1, CO4)

i. The resistivity lies betweenohm-metre.

ii. At 0K, they behave as insulators.
iii. The conductivity of a semiconductor increases both due to the temperature and
impurities.
iv. They have negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
v. In semiconductors both the electron and holes are charge carriers and will take
part in conduction

2. Mention any four advantages of semiconducting materials. (K1, CO4)

vi. It can behave as insulators at and as conductors at high temperatures.

vii. It possess some properties of both conductors and insulators
viii. On doping we can produce both n and p type semiconductors with charge carriers
of electrons and holes respectively.
ix. It possess many applications in electronic field such as manufacturing of diodes,
transistors, LED’s ICs etc.,

3. What are intrinsic semiconductors? Give examples. (K1, CO4)

Semiconductor in a pure form is called intrinsic semiconductor.
Examples: Si, Ge,

4. What are extrinsic semiconductors? Give examples. (K1, CO4)

Semiconductor which is doped with impurity is called extrinsic semiconductor.

Examples: Si and Ge doped with Al, In, P, As etc.

5. What are compound semiconductors? (or) What are direct band gap

semiconductors? (K1, CO4)

Semiconductors formed by combinations of equal atomic fractions of fifth and third
column or sixth and second column elements are called compound semiconductors. .
They are also called as direct band gap semiconductors.
Ex: GaAs, GaP, CdS, MgO etc.

6. What are the differences between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor ?

(K1, CO4)

S.
Intrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor
No.
1. Pure semiconductors are Semiconductors doped with impurity
called intrinsic are called extrinsic semiconductors.
semiconductors.
2. Charge carriers are produced Charge carriers are produced due to
due to thermal agitation. impurities as well as thermal agitation.
3. They have low electrical They have high electrical conductivity.
conductivity.
4. They have low operating They have high operating temperature.
temperature.
5. At 0K, Fermi level lies exactly At 0K, Fermi level lies closer to
between conduction and conduction band in the n type
valence bands. semiconductor and closer to the
valence band in the p type
 
semiconductor.
Examples: Ge and Si.
Examples: Ge or Si doped with As, Sb,
P, Al, B, etc.

7. What is meant by doping and dopant? (K1, CO4)

The process of adding suitable impurities to a pure semiconductor is called doping. The
maximum extent up to which impurity can be added is called doping level.
Semiconductor added with pentavalent impurity is called n-type semiconductor.
Semiconductor added with trivalent impurity is called p-type semiconductor.

An intentional and deliberately introduced impurity into an intrinsic semiconductor for

the purpose of modulating its electrical, optical and structural properties is a dopant or
doping agent
8. What is meant by the law of mass action in semiconductor? (K1,
CO4)

For any given semiconductor, the product of electron(ne) and hole

concentration(nh)remains constant, at a given temperature and is equal to the

square of the intrinsic carrier concentration
ne * nh= ni2

9. What is acceptor and donor energy level in semiconductor? (K1, CO4)

A trivalent impurity when doped with an intrinsic semiconductor accepts one electron
which produces an energy level called acceptor energy level.

A pentavalent impurity when doped with an intrinsic semiconductor donates one

electron which produces an energy level called donor energy level.

10. How the Fermi level changes its position with the impurity
concentration in p-type semiconductors? (K2, CO4)

The impurity concentration or concentration of acceptor atoms increases, extrinsic

behaviour increases. If the impurity concentration is decreased it tends to intrinsic
nature.

11. Compared with Germanium, Silicon is widely used to manufacture the

elemental device. Why? (K2, CO4)

Silicon is widely used in semiconductors because it remains a semiconductor at

higher temperatures than germanium. Silicon is the second most abundant element
(after oxygen) in the crust.

12. With increase of temperature the conductivity of semiconductor

increases while that of metals decreases. Give reasons. (K2, CO4)

With increase of temperature more and more charge carriers are created and hence
the conductivity of semiconductors increases. In the case of metals with increase of
temperature the concentration of charge carriers remain the same. But due to
increase of thermal energy, the electrons make frequent collisions with lattice ions
and hence the resistivity increases and conductivity decreases.
13. What do you understand by the term electron-hole pair? (K1, CO4)

When the temperature of the semiconductor is increased from 0K , the thermal

energy supplied, if one of the electron moves from valence band to conduction
band, it creates one hole in the valence band. This electron in the conduction
band and the hole created in the valence band is called electron-hole pair.

14. What is meant by energy band gap? (K1, CO4)

Energy band gap is the region of energies which are not occupied by the
electrons and is equal to the energy difference between minimum energy of
conduction band and the maximum energy of the valence band.

15. Define Hall effect and Hall voltage. (K1, CO4)

When a conductor (metal or semiconductor) carrying a current is placed in a

transverse magnetic field, an electric field is produced inside the conductor in a
direction normal to both the current and the magnetic field. This phenomenon is
known as Hall Effect and the generated voltage is known as Hall voltage.

16. What are different types of Hall devices? (K1, CO4)

They are
i. Gauss Meter
ii. Electronic Multiplier
iii. Electronic Wattmeter

17. What are the uses of Hall Effect? (K1, CO4)

Hall Effect is used to,

iv. determine the type of semiconductor. That is the material is whether p-type or n-
type.
v. find the carrier concentration.
vi. determine the sign of the current carrying charges.
vii. design magnetic flux meters and multipliers on the basis of Hall voltage.
viii. find the power flow in an electromagnetic wave.
18. If a small amount of impurities that altered the electron or hole
concentrations in an intrinsic semiconductor, how would this effect the
electrical conductivity at low temperatures? (K2, CO4)
The impurities would cause a change in conductivity, as conductivity is based on the
number of holes or electrons in the valence or conduction bands of the
semiconductor. Since at low temperatures the number of electrons promoted across
the band gap is small, the impurities would dominate any electrical conduction at low
temperatures.

19. How could electrical conductivity be used to determine if a material is

a metal or semiconductor? (K2, CO4)
While electrical conductivity itself cannot be directly measured, a metal would
decrease in conductivity as temperature increases and a semiconductor would
increase in conductivity as temperature increases.

20. Compare elemental and compound semiconductors. (or) What are the
differences between direct and indirect band gap semiconductors?
(K2 CO4)

S. Elemental or Indirect band Compound or Direct band gap

No. gap Semiconductor Semiconductor
1. Single element semiconductors. They are made of compounds.
Eg. Ge, Si, etc. Eg. GaAs, GaP, CdS, etc.
2. Electron - hole recombination Electron - hole recombination takes
takes place through traps, which place directly with each other.
are present in the band gap.
3. Heat is produced due to Photons are emitted during
recombination. recombination.
4. Lifetime of charge carriers is Lifetime of charge carriers is less
more due to indirect due to direct recombination.
recombination.
5. Current amplification is more. Current amplification is less.
6. Used in the manufacture of Used in the manufacture of LEDs,
diodes and transistors. Laser diodes, ICs, etc.
21. Write the expression for the concentration of holes in the valence band
and the concentration of electrons in the conduction band of an intrinsic
semiconductor. (K1, CO4)
Expression for the concentration of holes in the valence band of an intrinsic
semiconductor

Expression for the concentration of electrons in the conduction band of an intrinsic

semiconductor

22. Why do we prefer Silicon for transistors and GaAs for laser diodes?
(K2, CO4)
Silicon
a. Silicon is abundant and cheap to process. Si is highly abundant in the Earth's
crust, in the form of silicate minerals.
b. The existence of silicon dioxide—one of the best insulators. Silicon dioxide can
easily be incorporated onto silicon circuits, and such layers are adherent to the
underlying Si.
c. Silicon possesses a much higher hole mobility. This high mobility allows the
fabrication of higher-speed P-channel field effect transistors, which are required
for CMOS logic.
d. Silicon is an indirect band gap semiconductor for which the lifetime of the charge
carriers is more and the current amplification is very high, hence it is preferable
for using it in transistors.
Gallium (III) Arsenide
e. GaAs is a direct band gap semiconductor in which electrons and holes recombine
directly to produce photons and hence used in laser diodes.
f. GaAs cells are relatively insensitive to heat and have high switching speed.
g. GaAs has high absorptivity so it requires a cell only a few microns thick to absorb
sunlight.
h. It has a higher saturated electron velocity and higher electron mobility, allowing
transistors made from it to function at frequencies in excess of 250 GHz.
i. GaAs devices generate less noise than silicon devices when operated at high
frequencies.
j. They can also be operated at higher power levels than the equivalent silicon
device because they have higher breakdown voltages.
23. Why is a semiconductor damaged by strong current? (K2, CO4)
A strong current when passed through a semiconductor, heats up the semiconductor
and covalent bonds break up. Large number of free electrons are released with the
material behaving as a conductor. The material loses its semiconducting nature and
is said to be damaged.

24. What is the primary difference in the electronic structure of

semiconductors as compared to insulators? (K2, CO4)
While the electronic structure of a semiconductor and insulator appear the same, the
band gap energy between the conduction and valence bands is much smaller, which
allows for electrons to be excited across the band gap, allowing for conductivity.

25. Why are there an equal number of electrons and holes in an intrinsic
semiconductor? (K2, CO4)
There are an equal number of electrons and holes in an intrinsic semiconductor
because for each electron promoted from the valence band to the conduction band,
there is one hole created in the valence band.
 PART B – QUESTIONS

1. (i) Obtain an expression for density of electrons in the conduction band and holes
in the valence band of an intrinsic semiconductor. (12)

(ii) How does intrinsic carrier concentration vary with temperature for an intrinsic
semiconductor? (4)

2. Derive an expression for carrier concentration in an intrinsic semiconductor in

detail. (16)

3. (i) Obtain an expression for density of electrons in the conduction band and holes
in the valence band of an intrinsic semiconductor. (12)

(ii) The energy gap of Si is 1.1 eV. Its electron and hole mobilities at room
temperature are 0.48 and 0.013 m 2 V-1 s-1. Calculate its conductivity. (4)

4. (i) Show that for a p-type semiconductor the Hall coefficient R H is given by 1/pe.
How do you determine the mobility of charge carriers for an n-type
semiconductor using Hall Effect? (10)

(ii) Explain the application of Hall effect. (6)

(iii) A semiconducting crystal 12 mm long, 5 mm wide and 1 mm thick has a

magnetic flux density of 0.5 Wb/m 2 applied from front to back perpendicular to
largest faces. When a current of 20 mA flows length wise through the specimen,
the voltage measured across its width is found to be 37 μV. What is the Hall
coefficient of this semiconductor? (2)

5. (i) Estimate the bandgap of an intrinsic semiconductor by deriving its conductivity

value (10)

(ii) Derive the expression for the Fermi level of intrinsic semiconductor. Explain
with a neat sketch, the variation of Fermi level with temperature.

6. (i) What are semiconductors? What are its types? Explain it with suitable
necessary diagrams. (8)

(ii) Compare the variation of Fermi level with temperature and impurity
concentration in N-type and P- type semiconductors (8)
 SUPPORTIVE ONLINE CERTIFICATION
COURSES
NPTEL COURSES

1. Introduction to Solid State Physics

2. Physics of Materials

3. Fundamental concepts of semiconductors

Coursera

4. Semiconductor Physics

5. Intrinsic semiconductor -1

6. Intrinsic semiconductor -2

7. Intrinsic semiconductor - 3

8. Carrier concentration

9. Intrinsic Vs Extrinsic

10.Hall Effect

edX

11.Semiconductors for Beginners

12.Semiconductor Fundamentals

Udemy

Electronics : Semiconductor - A thorough understanding

 REAL TIME APPLICATIONS IN DAY
TO DAY LIFE AND INDUSTRY
 Without transistors and integrated circuits made of semiconductors, much of
modern life would be very different. No hand-held electronic games would
entertain children for hours. No bar-code readers would speed checkout lines and
compile inventories at the same time. And no computers would handle tasks at
work and home, nor would microprocessors control the operations of cars, planes,
and space vehicles.
 Temperature sensors in air conditioners are made with semiconductors

 Personal computer has a semiconductor to prevent overheating and vibration.

 So many digital consumer products in daily life use semiconductors to keep them
functioning better longer including smartphones, digital cameras, televisions,
washing machines and dryers, ovens and refrigerators, and even LEDs.

 Furthermore, efficient logistics systems including the transportation of humans

and the shipping of consumer goods and perishables rely on semiconductors to
help save energy and promote the preservation of our global environment.

65
 The number of car-mounted semiconductor devices is rising.  This relates
especially to Advanced Driver Assistance Systems where the need is growing for
semiconductors

Create Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS)

Semiconductors are going to enhance our driving experience. A significant aspect of

this will be noticed in car-mounted semiconductors. There already exists several
types of car-mounted semiconductors. In the future, more semiconductors will be
used for ADAS (Advanced Driver Assistance Systems). The overall driving
experience will go notches higher with ADAS applications like Lane Departure
Warning (LDW), Forward Collision Warning (FCW) , Automative Emergency Braking
(AEB) and more.

 Many devices used in healthcare depend on semiconductor manufacturing

technology. These include sensors and motion micro-electromechanical systems
(MEMS); communication integrated circuits (ICs); microcontrollers; discrete
devices; memory power management devices; and analog, digital, and mixed-
signal ICs. These devices are driving a host of applications in fields such as
clinical diagnostics and therapy, medical imaging, and portable and home
healthcare. Semiconductor-enabled equipment such as magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI) machines, pacemakers, blood pressure monitors, chemistry/blood
gas analyzers, and bedside and wireless patient monitors are changing lives
today. Highly specialized equipment is also becoming available, such as an
implanted adaptive cardiac resynchronization therapy (CRT) device used to help
improve the heart’s rhythm.

66
 The technologies of the future includes artificial intelligence, quantum computing,
and 5G and 6G wireless networks. Semiconductor innovation is the engine that
drives all these promising technologies.
 DIY applications for everyday use

 Semiconductor Device

 Real World Semiconductors

 New Semiconductor Technologies and Applications

67
CONTENT BEYOND THE SYLLABUS
1. Tunnel Diode

2. Varactor Diode

3. Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)

4. Organic Semiconductors

5. Zener Diode
 PRESCRIBED TEXTBOOKS AND
REFERENCE BOOKS
TEXTBOOKS

1. M.N. Avadhanulu and P.G. Kshirsagar, “A text book of Engineering Physics”, S.

Chand and Company, New Delhi, 2014.

2. R.K. Gaur and S.L. Gupta, “Engineering Physics”, Dhanpat Rai Publications (P)
Ltd., Eighth Ed., New Delhi, 2001.

3. V. Rajendran, “Materials Science”, Tata McGraw-Hill, 2011.

4. R.A. Serway and J.W. Jewett, “Physics for Scientists and Engineers”, Ninth Ed.,
Cengage Learning, 2014.

5. C. Kittel, “Introduction to Solid State Physics”, 8 th Ed., John Wiley & Sons, NJ,
USA, 2005.

REFERENCE BOOKS
6. D. Halliday, R. Resnick and J. Walker, “Fundamentals of Physics”, 9 th Ed., John
Wiley & sons, 2011.

7. R.P. Feynman, “The Feynman Lectures on Physics - Vol. I, II and III”, The New
Millennium Edition, 2012.

8. N.W. Aschroft and N.D. Mermin, “Solid State Physics”, Harcourt College
Publishers, 1976.

9. S.O. Pillai, “Solid state physics”, New Age International, 2015.

10. M.A. Wahab, “Solid State Physics”, 3 rd Edition, Narosa Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.,
2015

11. N. Garcia and A. Damask, “Physics for Computer Science Students”, Springer-
Verlag, 2012.
 MINI PROJECT SUGGESTIONS

1. Which material conduct electricity?

2. Basic circuit kit – Conductors and insulators

3. What conducts electricity?

4. Build a home made, low cost Geiger -Muller detector 

5. Construct a humidity sensor 

6. Building a 𝛄 and 𝜷 radiation detector

 Thank you

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