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 PHYSICS FOR COMPUTER
SCIENCE AND INFORMATION
TECHNOLOGY
21PH101

UNIT III

ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF
MATERIALS

Department: FIRST SEMESTER – CSE, IT

Batch/Year : 2021-2022 / I

Created by : DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, RMDEC

Date : 26-10-2021
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
S. No. CONTENTS

1 Course Objectives

2 Prerequisites

3 Syllabus

4 Course Outcomes

5 CO - PO/PSO Mapping

6 Lecture Plan

7 Activity Based Learning

Lecture Notes: Unit – III Electrical Properties of Materials

3.1 Classical Free Electron Theory

3.2 Electrical Conductivity

3.3 Expression for Thermal Conductivity

3.4 Wiedemann-Franz Law

3.5 Successes and Failures of Classical Free Electron Theory

8 3.6 Particle in a Three Dimensional Box

3.7 Degenerate and Non-degenerate States

3.8 Effect of Temperature on Fermi Function

3.9 Density of States and Average Energy of Electron at 0 K

3.10 Energy Bands in Solids

Key Points of Remember

Solved Problems
S. No. CONTENTS

Other Learning Materials

8
Quiz

9 Assignment

10 Part A – Questions with Answers

11 Part B – Questions

12 Supportive Online Certification Courses

13 Real Time Applications in Day to Day Life and to Industry

14 Contents Beyond the Syllabus

15 Prescribed Textbooks and Reference Books

16 Mini Project Suggestions

 COURSE OBJECTIVES

1. To learn the fundamental concepts of physics and apply this

knowledge to scientific, engineering and technological
problems.

2. To make the students enrich basic knowledge in electronics

and quantum concepts and apply the same in computing
fields.
 PREREQUISITES

1. Awareness of basic concepts of physics at higher secondary

school level.
2. Fundamental knowledge in mathematics on topics like
calculus (differentiation, integration), trigonometry and
geometry.
3. Trusting your intuition by applying basic common sense
4. Conceptual learning
5. Passion for understanding how things work, enjoy playing
with ideas
 SYLLABUS
COURSE CODE PHYSICS FOR COMPUTER SCIENCE AND L T P C
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
21PH101 (Common to CSE & IT) 3 0 0 3

UNIT I LASER AND FIBRE OPTICS 9

     
Population of energy levels – Einstein’s A and B coefficients derivation - Resonant
cavity - Optical amplification (qualitative) - Semiconductor lasers: homojunction and
heterojunction - Engineering applications of lasers in data storage (qualitative).
Fibre optics: Principle, numerical aperture and acceptance angle -V-number - Types
of optical fibres (Material, refractive index and mode) - Losses in optical fibre - Fibre
optic communication - Fibre optic sensors (pressure and displacement).
 
UNIT II MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 9
     
Magnetic dipole moment - atomic magnetic moments - Origin of magnetic moments-
Magnetic permeability and susceptibility - Magnetic material classifications-
Diamagnetism – Paramagnetism - Ferromagnetism –Antiferromagnetism -
Ferrimagnetism - Ferromagnetism: Domain Theory- M versus H behaviour - Hard and
soft magnetic materials - Examples and uses - Magnetic principle in computer data
storage - Magnetic hard disc (GMR sensor) - Introduction to Spintronics.
 
UNIT III ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 9
     
Classical free electron theory - Expression for electrical conductivity – Thermal
conductivity expression - Wiedemann-Franz law - Success and failures of CFT -
Particle in a three dimensional box - Degenerate states - Effect of temperature on
Fermi function - Density of energy states and average energy of electron at 0 K -
Energy bands in solids.
UNIT IV SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS 9
     
Intrinsic Semiconductors – Energy band diagram - Direct and indirect band gap
semiconductors - Carrier concentration in intrinsic semiconductors- Band gap
determination-Extrinsic semiconductors - n-type and p-type semiconductors
(qualitative) - Variation of Fermi level with temperature and impurity concentration -
Hall effect and its applications.
 
UNIT V  INTRODUCTION TO NANO DEVICES AND QUANTUM 9
COMPUTING
     
Introduction to nanomaterial -Electron density in bulk material - Size dependence of
Fermi energy - Quantum confinement - Quantum structures - Density of states in
quantum well, quantum wire and quantum dot structure - Band gap of nanomaterial-
Tunneling: single electron phenomena and single electron transistor - Quantum dot
laser. Quantum computing: Introduction - Differences between quantum and classical
computation.
 
TOTAL: 45 PERIODS
 COURSE OUTCOMES

On completion of this course, the students will gain knowledge and will be able to

CO1: Know the principle, construction and working of lasers and their
applications in fibre optic communication.

C02: Understand the magnetic properties of materials and their specific

applications in computer data storage.

C03: Analyze the classical and quantum electron theories and energy band
structures.

C04: Evaluate the conducting properties of semiconductors its applications in

various devices.

C05: Comprehend the knowledge on quantum confinement effects.

C06: Apply optical, magnetic, conducting properties of material, quantum

concepts at the nanoscale in various applications.
 CO – PO/PSO MAPPING

PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO
COs
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

CO1 3 2 3 2 - - - - - - - -

CO2 3 2 3 2 - - - - - - - -

CO3 3 2 3 2 - - - - - - - -

CO4 3 2 3 2 - - - - - - - -

CO5 3 2 3 2 - - - - - - - -

CO6 3 2 3 2 - - - - - - - -
 LECTURE PLAN

No. Mode
S. Propos Actual Taxon
Topics to be of Pertain of
No ed Lecture omy
Covered Peri ing CO Delive
. Date Date Level
ods ry
Classical free
PPT,
electron theory –
1 1 CO3 K1 Chalk
Electrical
& Talk
conductivity
Classical free
PPT,
electron theory -
2 1 CO3 K2 Chalk
Thermal
& Talk
conductivity
Widemann-Franz
law and
PPT,
Successes and
3 1 CO3 K1 Chalk
failures of
& Talk
clcassical free
electron theory
PPT,
Particle in a three
4 1 CO3 K2 Chalk
dimensional box
& Talk
Effect of PPT,
5 temperature on 1 CO3 K3 Chalk
Fermi function & Talk
Density of states
PPT,
and carrier
6 1 CO3 K1, K2 Chalk
concentration of
& Talk
electron at 0 K
PPT,
Average energy of
7 1 CO3 K1 Chalk
an electron at 0 K
& Talk
PPT,
Energy bands in
8 1 CO3 K1, K2 Chalk
solids
& Talk
PPT,
9 Problems 1 CO3 K3 Chalk
& Talk
 ACTIVITY
NAME OF THE LEARNING
S.No. ACTIVITY
ACTIVITY OUTCOME
1. Construct a circuit as shown in the
diagram below using a 1.5 V battery,
ammeter and a few connecting wires.
X Y

A On completing
this activity,
+ -
students will be
2. Between the points X and Y, able to
connect a nichrome wire and note understand the
Classification of
down the current shown by the classification of
Materials as
ammeter. materials as
1 Conductors,
3. For a second reading, replace the conductors,
Insulators and
nichrome wire with a silicon diode in insulators and
Semiconductors
forward bias condition (with the help semiconductors
of the teacher) and note down the which is on the
current shown by the ammeter. basis of their
electrical
3. For the last reading, replace the conductivity.
silicon diode with a wooden stick and
note down the current shown by the
ammeter.
4. Give your inference not exceeding
10 lines.
Students experiment to increase the
intensity of a light bulb by testing
Apply Ohm's
batteries in series and parallel
law in series /
circuits. They learn about Ohm's law,
parallel circuits
power, parallel and series circuits,
with circuit
and ways to measure voltage and
components and
2 Ohm’s Law current.
power
https://www.teachengineering.org/ac devices that can
tivities/view/ohm1_act_joy
be used to
https://www.teachengineering.org/ac measure voltage
tivities/view/wpi_ohm2_act_joy
and current.
Ohm's Law
3.1 CLASSICAL FREE ELECTRON THEORY
It is very important to know the different properties such as mechanical, optical,
electrical, thermal, magnetic, etc. of materials to use them for various applications.

The knowledge of Classical free electron theory, Band theory of solids and Quantum
theory are very essential to understand the different behaviour of the materials.

Classical Free Electron theory is also known as Drude – Lorentz theory. In the year
1900, Drude presented a model for metals. In this model, valence electrons are
assumed to behave like a gas, with the positive ions constituting the core of a metal.
The electrons are confined to move within the metal due to the electrostatic
attraction existing between them and the positive ion core.

In 1909, Lorentz proposed that free electrons in a metal obey the Maxwell-
Boltzmann statistics under equilibrium conditions. A combination of the salient points
of both the Drude and Lorentz theories constitutes the Drude – Lorentz classical
theory.

3.1.1 POSTULATES OF CLASSICAL FREE ELECTRON THEORY

 In the absence of external electrical field

Fig. 3.1 Electron motion in the absence of electric field

1. Free electrons move randomly inside the metal similar to gas molecules inside
the container as seen in Fig. 3.1.

2. The potential energy of the free electrons is assumed to be zero.

 3. During random movement, free electrons collide with one another and with the
ions of the metal.

4. The collision is elastic and hence energy is not lost during collision.

5. Between collisions, electrons move in straight line path.

 In the presence of external electric field

Fig. 3.2 Electron motion in the presence of electric field

1. The motion of the free electrons are streamlined as shown in Fig. 3.2.

2. The electrons have acquired a drift in its velocity. This velocity is known as drift
velocity (vd).

3.1.2 DEFINITIONS

Drift velocity ()

It is defined as the average velocity acquired by the free electron in the presence of
an external applied electric field.

Mobility ()

It is the drift velocity acquired by the free electron per unit applied electric field.
𝑣 𝑑
𝜇 =
𝐸
Relaxation time ()

The time taken by the free electrons to reach the normal state from the disturbed
condition in the presence of electric field is known as Relaxation time
Collision time ()

The average time taken by the free electrons between two successive collisions is
known as Collision time.

Mean free path ()

The average distance travelled by the free electron between two successive
collisions is known as Mean free path.

3.2 ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY

Fig. 3.3 Uniform rod with potential difference V

A uniform rod of length and uniform area of cross-section ‘’ is given a potential

difference of as shown in the Fig. 3.3.

Let ‘’ be the number of free electrons per unit volume (electron density) in the rod
and ‘’ be the charge of an electron.

Total number of free electrons in the rod

Total charge in the rod

𝑄 =𝑛𝐴𝑙 ( − 𝑒 …(3.1)
)
The free electrons acquire a change in velocity due to the applied voltage . This
velocity is known as drift velocity.

Total charge
𝐼=
Current flowing through the rod
Time
𝑄 …(3.2)
𝐼 =
𝜏
Substituting eqn. (3.1) in (3.2)
𝑛𝐴𝑙 ( − 𝑒 )
𝐼 = …(3.3)
𝜏
We know that the current density
𝐼
𝐽 = …(3.4)
𝐴
Substituting eqn. (3.3) in (3.4)
𝑛𝐴𝑙 ( − 𝑒 )
𝐽 =
𝜏 A
𝑙
Since, the drift velocity, 𝑣 d =
𝜏
𝐽 =𝑛 𝑣 𝑑 ( − 𝑒 )
…(3.5)
According to Ohm’s law,
𝑉
𝐼 = …(3.6)
𝑅
We know that
𝜌 𝑙
𝑅 = …(3.7)
𝐴
Substituting eqn. (3.7) in (3.6)
𝑉𝐴…(3.8)
𝐼 =
𝜌 𝑙
𝑉
Since the electric field,𝐸 = and the
1
conductivity, 𝜎 = , eqn. (3.8) can now be
𝑙 𝜌
written as
𝐼 = 𝐴𝐸 𝜎…(3.9)
On substituting eqn. (3.9) in (3.4), we get

𝐴𝐸 𝜎
𝐽 =
𝐴
𝐽 =𝜎 𝐸…(3.10)
Comparing eqn. (3.5) and (3.10)

𝜎 𝐸 =𝑛 𝑣 𝑑 ( − 𝑒 )
𝑛 𝑣 𝑑 (− 𝑒)
𝜎 = …(3.11)
𝐸
𝑣𝑑
Since the mobility, 𝜇= eqn. (3.10) can be written as
𝐸
𝜎 =𝑛 𝜇 (− 𝑒 …(3.12)
)
 3.2.1 EXPRESSION FOR ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY

Fig. 3.4 Stream line motion of the electrons in the presence of the field

When an electric field is maintained between the two ends of metallic rod, as shown
in Fig. 3.4, the electrons will move towards the positive field direction and produces
current in the rod.

Current flowing through unit area, i.e, current density

𝐽 =𝑛 𝑣 𝑑 ( − 𝑒…(3.13)
)
- free electron density, - charge of an electron

Due to the electric field applied, the electron gains the acceleration ‘’
Drift velocity ( 𝑣 𝑑 )
𝑎=
Relaxation time ( 𝜏 )
𝑣 𝑑 = 𝑎 𝜏…(3.14)
If is the electric field intensity and ‘’ is the mass of the electron, then, the force
experienced by the electron is given by
𝐹 =( − 𝑒 ) 𝐸…(3.15)

From Newton’s second law of motion, the force on the electron is given by

𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎…(3.16)
Equating eqn. (3.15) and (3.16),

𝑚𝑎=( − 𝑒 ) 𝐸
( − 𝑒 ) 𝐸…(3.17)
𝑎=
𝑚
On substituting eqn. (3.17) in (3.14), the expression for drift velocity is
( − 𝑒 ) 𝐸
𝑣 𝑑 = 𝜏
…(3.18)
𝑚
Now, on substituting eqn. (3.18) in (3.13), the expression for current density is

𝐽 =𝑛 ( − 𝑒 ) ( − 𝑒𝐸
𝑚
𝜏 )
𝑛𝑒2 𝐸 𝜏
𝐽 = …(3.19)
𝑚
If the applied electric field is more, then the current density will also be more, i.e.,

𝐽 ∝ 𝐸…(3.20)
𝐽 =
is the proportionality constant known as 𝜎
electrical conductivity 𝐸
of the material.

Comparing eqn. (3.19) and (3.20)

𝑛 𝑒2 𝐸 𝜏
𝜎 𝐸 =
𝑚
…(3.21)
𝑛 𝑒2 𝜏
𝜎 =
𝑚
Eqn. (3.21) is the expression for the electrical conductivity of a conducting material.

3.4 EXPRESSION FOR THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY

Fig. 3.5 Electron flow from high temp to low temp through uniform rod

Let us consider a uniform rod AB as shown in Fig. 3.5. The temperatures at A and B
are and respectively. is greater than ..
Consider a point ‘C’ on the rod which is at a distance equal to the mean free path ()
of the electron between the ends A and B of the rod

The amount of heat () conducted by the rod from A to B is given by

− 𝑇2) 𝑡 𝐴 (𝑇 1
𝑄 ∝
2 𝜆
𝐾𝐴 ( 𝑇 1 − 𝑇 2 ) 𝑡
𝑄= …(3.22)
2 𝜆

where Co-efficient of thermal conductivity of the material

Area of cross section of the rod
Temperature difference between the ends A and B
Time for conduction
Length of the rod

From equation (3.22), co-efficient of thermal conductivity per unit area per unit time
is given as
𝑄 (2 𝜆 )
𝐾 = …(3.23)
(𝑇 1 − 𝑇 2)
Let us assume that there is equal probability for the electrons to move in all the six
directions as shown in Fig.3.6. Since each electron travels with thermal velocity , if ‘’
is the free electron density, then on an average electrons will travel in any one
direction per unit area per unit time.

Fig. 3.6 Possible directions of free electron movement in a material

Number of electrons crossing C through unit area per unit time
1
¿ 𝑛𝑣…(3.24)
6
The average kinetic energy of an electron at A of temperature
3
¿ 𝑘 𝐵 𝑇 1
2
The average kinetic energy of an electron at ‘B’ of temperature T2
3
¿ 𝑘 𝐵 𝑇 2
2
where Boltzmann constant = 1.380 x 10-23 J/K
Number of electrons moving from end A
The heat energy transferred

¿
to B across C per unit area per unit time
per unit area per unit time
from end A to B across C Average kinetic energy of an electron at
end A which is at temperature

¿ ( 1
6
𝑛𝑣 ×
3
) (
𝑘 𝑇
2 𝐵 1 )
1
¿ 𝑛𝑣 𝑘 𝐵 𝑇 1
4
…(3.25)

Similarly, the heat energy transferred per unit area per unit time from B to A across C
1
is ¿ 𝑛𝑣 𝑘 𝐵 𝑇 2
4
…(3.26)

∴ The net heat energy transferred from A to B per unit area per unit time across C
can
𝑄 got by 1
be = subtracting
𝑛𝑣 eqn.𝑘
(3.26) from (3.25)1
𝑇 eqn.− 𝑛𝑣 𝑘 𝐵 𝑇
𝐵 1 2
4 4
1
𝑄= 𝑛𝑣 𝑘 𝐵 ( 𝑇 1 −𝑇 2 )
4
…(3.27)

On substituting eqn. (3.27) in (3.23), we get the expression for thermal conductivity
𝑛𝑣 𝑘 𝐵 (𝑇 1 −𝑇 2 )2 𝜆
as𝐾 =
4 (𝑇 1 − 𝑇 2 )
𝑛𝑣 𝑘 𝐵 𝜆
𝐾 =
2
…(3.28)
 𝜆
For 𝜏
conducting =
material, 𝜏 𝑐 =
𝑣
𝜆 =𝜏 𝑣…(3.29)

On substituting eqn. (3.29) in (3.28), we get the thermal conductivity as

𝑛𝑣 𝑘 𝐵 (𝜏 𝑣 )
𝐾 =
2
𝑛 𝑣2 𝑘 𝐵 𝜏
𝐾 = …(3.30)
2

Equation (3.30) is the classical expression for thermal conductivity of conducting

material.

3.4 WIEDEMANN – FRANZ LAW

Law: The ratio between the thermal conductivity and electrical conductivity of a
metal is directly proportional to the absolute temperature of the metal.
𝐾
∝ 𝑇
𝜎
𝐾
= 𝐿𝑇
𝜎
where is a constant called as Lorentz number whose value is W Ω K -2 (Quantum
mechanical value) at temperature T = 293 K.

Proof:

(i) By Classical Theory

𝑛 𝑒2 𝜏
Electrical conductivity of a material 𝜎 =
𝑚
𝑛 𝑣2𝑘𝐵𝜏
Thermal conductivity of a material, 𝐾 =
2
𝐾 𝑣2𝑘 𝐵𝑚
∴ = …(3.31)
𝜎 2 𝑒
2

According to kinetic theory of gases, kinetic energy of an electron can be related as

1 3
𝑚 𝑣 2= 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
…(3.32)
2 2
On substituting eqn. (3.32) in (3.31), we get

( )
𝐾 𝑘𝐵 3
= 2
𝑘𝐵 𝑇
𝜎 𝑒 2

( )
2
𝐾 3 𝑘𝐵
(or)= 𝑇
𝜎 2 𝑒
𝐾
= 𝐿𝑇
𝜎 (or) where 𝐿=
3
2
𝑘𝐵 2
𝑒 ( )
Substitute the value of Boltzmann constant = 1.38 x 10-23 J K-1 and the charge of
electron e = 1. 6021 x 10-19 C, we get L=1.12 x 10-8 W Ω K-2

However, it is found that the classical value of Lorentz number is only half of the
experimental value (i.e.,) 2.44 x 10 -8 W Ω K-2

This discrepancy in the experimental and theoretical value of ‘L’ is the failure of
classical theory. This discrepancy can be rectified by quantum theory.

3.5 SUCCESS AND FAILURE OF CLASSICAL FREE

ELECTRON THEORY
Success

1. It was able to establish the movement of electrons in any given conductor.

2. It was used to explain and derive the relaxation time, the electron mean free
path, mobility and electrical and thermal conductivities.

3. It verifies Ohm’s law.

4. It was used to derive Wiedemann-Franz law.

Failure

5. It could not explain the Compton effect, Photo-electric effect, Paramagnetism,

Ferromagnetism, etc.

6. The theoretical and experimental values of specific heat and electronic specific
heat is not matched.
3. By classical theory , = constant at all temperatures. But by quantum theory, it is
not constant at all temperatures.

4. Lorentz number by classical theory does not have good agreement with the
experimental value.

3.6 PARTICLE IN A THREE DIMENSIONAL BOX

Fig. 3.7 Particle movement in a three dimensional box

Let us consider a free particle trapped in a 3 dimensional potential box as seen in
Fig. 3.7. As it moves freely inside the box in all the three dimensions, the potential
energy is taken as zero.

The Schrodinger 3 dimensional time independent wave equation for a free particle is

𝜕2 𝜓 𝜕2 𝜓 𝜕2 𝜓 2𝑚 …(3.33)
2
+ 2
+ 2
+ 2
[ 𝐸 − 𝑉 ] 𝜓 =0
𝜕𝑥
Eqn. (3.33) is 𝜕 𝑦 differential
a partial 𝜕 𝑧 equation,ℏin which is a function of three
variables , and . =0 for a free particle, then eqn. (3.33) becomes

…(3.34)
𝜕2 𝜓 𝜕2 𝜓 𝜕2 𝜓 2𝑚
2
+ 2
+ 2
+ 2
𝐸 𝜓=0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 ℏ
We can solve this using method of separation of variables.

Using method of separation of variables, the solution for eqn.(3.34) can be written
as

𝜓 ( 𝑥 , 𝑦 , 𝑧 ) = 𝑋 ( 𝑥 ) 𝑌 ( 𝑦 ) 𝑍 (…(3.35)
𝑧)
𝜓 = 𝑋 𝑌 𝑍
On differentiating partially the eqn. (3.35) twice with respect to , we get,
𝜕 𝜓 𝑑 𝑋
= 𝑌𝑍
𝜕 𝑥 𝑑 𝑥
𝜕2 𝜓 𝑑2 𝑋
=𝑌𝑍
𝑑 𝑥 …(3.36)
2 2
𝜕 𝑥

On differentiating partially the eqn. (3.35) twice with respect to , we get,

𝜕 𝜓 𝑑 𝑌
= 𝑋𝑍
𝜕 𝑦 𝑑 𝑦
𝜕2 𝜓 𝑑2 𝑌
= 𝑋𝑍
𝜕 𝑦2 𝑑 𝑦…(3.37)
2

On differentiating partially the eqn. (3.35) twice with respect to , we get,

𝜕 𝜓 𝑑 𝑍
= 𝑋𝑌
𝜕 𝑧 𝑑 𝑧
𝜕2 𝜓 𝑑2 𝑍
= 𝑋𝑌
𝑑 𝑧 …(3.38)
2 2
𝜕 𝑧

On substituting eqn. (3.35), (3.36), (3.37) and (3.38) in (3.34), we get

𝑌𝑍
𝑑2 𝑋
𝑑𝑥
2
+ 𝑋𝑍
𝑑2 𝑌
𝑑𝑦
2
+ 𝑋𝑌
𝑑2 𝑍
𝑑𝑧
2
+
2𝑚
ℏ
2
𝐸𝑋𝑌𝑍 =0
[ ]
𝑌𝑍
𝑑2 𝑋
𝑑𝑥 2
+ 𝑋𝑍
d2𝑌
d 𝑦 2
+ 𝑋𝑌
d2 𝑍
d 𝑧 2
=−
2𝑚
ℏ2
𝐸 𝑋𝑌𝑍
…(3.39) [ ]
Dividing both sides of eqn. (3.39) by XYZ, we get
1 d2 𝑋
𝑋 d 𝑥2
+
1 d 2𝑌
𝑌 d 𝑦2
+
1 d2 𝑍
𝑍 d 𝑧2
=−
[ 2𝑚
2
𝐸
ℏ …(3.40) ]
1 d2 𝑋 1 d 2𝑌 1 d2 𝑍
=− [ 𝑘 𝑥 +𝑘 𝑦 + 𝑘𝑧 ]
2 2 2
+ + …(3.41)
𝑋 d 𝑥 2
𝑌 d 𝑦 2
𝑍 d𝑧 2

[ 2 𝑚
ℏ
2
𝐸
] =[ 𝑘
2
𝑥 +𝑘
2
𝑦 +𝑘 𝑧 ]
…(3.42)
2

In eqn. (3.41), LHS is independent of each other and is equal to a constant in RHS.
We can equate each term of LHS to each term of RHS.
1 d2 𝑋 2
¿ − 𝑘𝑥
𝑋 d 𝑥
2
 d2 𝑋
+ 𝑘2
𝑥 𝑋 =0
d 𝑥
2 …(3.43)

Similarly, for the variable, we get

1 d2 𝑌 2
=− 𝑘 𝑦
𝑌 d 𝑦
2

d2𝑌 2
2
+ 𝑘𝑦 𝑌 = 0
…(3.44)
d 𝑦
And finally, for the variable, we get
1 d2 𝑍 2
=− 𝑘𝑧
𝑍 d 𝑧
2

d2 𝑍 2
+𝑘 𝑧 𝑍 =0
d 𝑧
2 …(3.45)

Eqns. (3.43), (3.44), and (3.45) represents the differential equations in , and
coordinates.
The solution for (3.43) can be written as
𝑋 ( 𝑥 ) = 𝐴 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘 𝑥 𝑥 + 𝐵 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑘…(3.46)
𝑥 𝑥

where and are arbitrary constants, which can be found by applying boundary
conditions.

(i) When ;

Eqn. (3.46) becomes

0 =0 + 𝐵𝑥
𝐵 𝑥 = 0 …(3.47)
(ii) When ;

Eqn. (3.46) becomes

0 = 𝐴 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘 𝑥 𝑎
𝐴𝑥 ≠ 0
If , then becomes zero, which implies that the particle is not there, and is
meaningless.
 Then,
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘 𝑥 𝑎 = 0
We know that , then the condition that we obtain is
𝑘𝑥 𝑎 =𝑛 𝑥 𝜋
𝑛 𝑥𝜋
𝑘𝑥 = …(3.48)
𝑎
On Substituting eqn. (3.47) and (3.48) in (3.46), we get
𝑛𝑥 𝜋 𝑥
𝑋 ( 𝑥 ) = 𝐴 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 …(3.49)
𝑎
Eqn. (3.49) represents the un-normalized wave function.

Normalization

Eqn. (3.49) can be normalized by integrating it within the limits i.e., boundary
condition, to .
𝑎

∫| 𝑋
2
( 𝑥 )| 𝑑𝑥 =1
0
𝑎
𝑛𝑥 𝜋 𝑥
∫ 𝐴2
𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛
2
𝑎
𝑑𝑥 =1
0

On solving, we get,
𝐴2
𝑥 𝑎
=1
2

𝐴𝑥 =
Substituting eqn. (3.50) in (3.49) we get
√ 2
𝑎
…(3.50)

𝑋 ( 𝑥 )=
√ 2
𝑎
𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝑛𝑥 𝜋 𝑥
𝑎
…(3.51)

Similarly by solving (3.44) and (3.45) with the boundary conditions to and to ,
respectively, we can write

𝑌 ( 𝑦 )=
√ 2
𝑏
𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝑛𝑦 𝜋 𝑦
𝑏
…(3.52)
 𝑍 ( 𝑧 )=

Eigen function
√ 2
𝑐
𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝑛𝑧 𝜋 𝑧
𝑐 …(3.53)

The complete wave function, for eqn. (3.34) can be written as

𝜓 ( 𝑥 , 𝑦 , 𝑧 )= 𝑋 ( 𝑥 ) 𝑌 ( 𝑦 ) 𝑍 ( 𝑧 )
Substituting (3.51), (3.52), and (3.53) in the above eqn., we get,

𝜓 ( 𝑥 , 𝑦 , 𝑧 )=
2
𝑎√𝑠𝑖𝑛
2 √2
𝑛𝑥 𝜋 𝑥 2
𝑎
𝑛 𝜋𝑥
𝑏
𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝑏
𝑛 𝜋𝑦
√
𝑛𝑦 𝜋 𝑦 2
𝑐
𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝑛 𝜋𝑧
𝑛𝑧 𝜋 𝑧
𝑐 √
𝜓 ( 𝑥 , 𝑦 , 𝑧 )= 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑧
√ 𝑎𝑏𝑐 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 …(3.54)
Eqn (3.54) represents the eigen function for particle in a cuboid box.

Eigen values

From eqn. (3.42) we can write,

2𝑚 2 2 2
2
𝐸= 𝑘 𝑥 + 𝑘 𝑦 + 𝑘 𝑧
ℏ
ℏ2
𝐸=
2𝑚
[ 𝑘2 2 2
𝑧]
𝑥 + 𝑘 𝑦 + 𝑘…(3.55)

From eqn. (3.48) we can write

Substituting the above values in eqn. (3.55)

[ ]
2 2 2 2 2 2
ℏ2 𝑛𝑥 𝜋 𝑛𝑦 𝜋 𝑛𝑧 𝜋
𝐸= + +
2𝑚 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2

[ ]
2 2 2
h2 𝜋 2 𝑛𝑥 𝑛𝑦 𝑛𝑧
𝐸= 2 2
+ 2
+ 2
4 𝜋 2𝑚 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐

𝐸=
h2
8 𝑚 [ 𝑛2
𝑥

𝑎
2
+
𝑛2
𝑏
𝑦
2
+
𝑛2
𝑐
𝑧
]
…(3.56)
2

Eqn. (3.56) represents the energy eigen values of an electron in a cuboid box.
Eigen function and Eigen value for a cubical box

For a cubical box, = = , eqn. (3.56) becomes as

h2
𝐸𝑛 𝑛 𝑦 𝑛𝑧 = [ 𝑛2𝑥 + 𝑛 2𝑦 + 𝑛 𝑧 ]
2
…(3.57)
𝑥
8 𝑚 𝑎2
The corresponding normalized wave function of an electron in a cubical box can be
obtained from eqn. (3.54)

𝜓 ( 𝑥 , 𝑦 , 𝑧 )=
√ 2 2 2
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
𝑛 𝜋𝑥
× × 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
𝑎
𝑛 𝜋𝑦
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑦
𝑎
𝑛 𝜋𝑧
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑧
𝑎

√
8 𝑛𝑥 𝜋 𝑥 𝑛𝑦 𝜋 𝑦 𝑛𝑧 𝜋 𝑧
𝜓 ( 𝑥 , 𝑦 , 𝑧 )= 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 …(3.58)
𝑎3 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
From eqn. (3.57) and (3.58), we can note that several combinations of the three
quantum numbers () leads to different energy eigen values and eigen functions.

3.7 DEGENERATE AND NON-DEGENERATE STATES

Example

If a state has quantum numbers , then .

Similarly, for combination and combination, .

Eqn. (3.57) can be written as

…(3.59)

The corresponding wave function can be written as 6 h2

𝐸 112 = 𝐸 121 = 𝐸 211 =
8 𝑚 𝑎2
…(3.60a)

𝜓 112 =
√ 8
𝑎3
𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝜋 𝑥
𝑎
𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝜋𝑦
𝑎
𝑠𝑖𝑛
2 …(3.60b)
𝜋𝑧
𝑎

𝜓 121 =
√ 8
𝑎3
𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝜋 𝑥
𝑎
𝑠𝑖𝑛
2𝜋 𝑦
𝑎
𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝜋𝑧
𝑎
𝜓 211=
(i) Degeneracy
√ 8
𝑎3
𝑠𝑖𝑛
2𝜋 𝑥
𝑎
𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝜋𝑦
𝑎
𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝜋𝑧
…(3.60c)
𝑎

It is seen from eqn. (3.59) and (3.60), for several combinations of quantum
numbers we have same energy eigen value but different eigen functions. Such
states and energy levels are called degenerate state as in Fig. 3.8.
The three combinations of quantum numbers (112), (121) and (211) which gives
same eigen value but different eigen functions are called 3 fold degenerate state. If
we have 6 combinations to give the same energy level and 6 eigen functions, it is
called 6-fold degenerate state.
(ii) Non-degeneracy
For various combinations of quantum number if we have same energy eigen value
and same (one) eigen function then such states and energy levels are called non-
degenerate state as in Fig. 3.8.
Example:

¿ Eigen function 𝜓 222=

√ 8
𝑎3
𝑠𝑖𝑛
2𝜋 𝑥
𝑎
𝑠𝑖𝑛
2𝜋 𝑦
𝑎
𝑠𝑖𝑛
2𝜋 𝑧
𝑎

Fig. 3.8 Degenerate and non-degenerate states

3.8 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON FERMI FUNCTION

3.8.1 FERMI DISTRIBUTION FUNCTION
Definition: Femi Function F(E) represents the probability of an electron occupying a
given energy state.
The Fermi distribution function (i.e.) the probability of an electron occupying a given
energy state as
1
𝐹 ( 𝐸 )= (𝐸 − 𝐸 𝐹 )
𝑘 𝐵𝑇
1+ 𝑒
where is the Fermi energy, is the Boltzmann constant.

3.8.2 FERMI ENERGY AND ITS IMPORTANCE

Fermi energy level ()

Fermi energy level is the maximum energy level upto which the electrons can be
filled at 0 K.

Importance

(i) Thus it acts as a reference level which separates the vacant and filled states at
0 K.

(ii) It gives information about the filled electrons states and the empty states.

(iii) At 0 K, below Fermi energy level, electrons are filled and above Fermi energy
level, it will be empty.

(iv) When the temperature is increased, few electron gains the thermal energy and
it goes to higher energy levels.

3.8.3 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON FERMI FUNCTION

The effect of temperature on Fermi function can be discussed with respect to eqn.
(3.61).
1
𝐹 ( 𝐸 )= (𝐸 − 𝐸 …(3.61)
𝐹 )
𝑘 𝐵𝑇
1+ 𝑒
At 0 Kelvin

At 0 K, the electrons can be filled up to a maximum energy level called Fermi

energy level. Above that, all the energy levels will be empty. It can be proved from
the following conditions.
 Fig. 3.9 Graphical representation of Fermi function at 0 K

(i) When , eqn. (3.61) becomes

1 1
𝐹 ( 𝐸 )= = =1
1+ 𝑒
− ∞
1

(i.e.) 100% chance for the electron to be filled within the Fermi energy level.

(ii) When , eqn. (3.61) becomes

1 1
𝐹 ( 𝐸 )= = =0
1+ 𝑒
∞
∞

(i.e.) 0 % chance for the electron to be filled the given energy level E.

(iii)When , eqn. (3.61) becomes

1
𝐹 ( 𝐸 )= =u ndefined
1+ 𝑒 ∞

The Fermi function F(E) is undefined at E = E F.

At T = 0 K, the Fermi function is uniquely defined for all values of E less than E F and

also for all values of E greater than EF; at E = EF, the Fermi function is undefined.
The graphical representation of the Fermi function at T = 0 K is shown in Fig.3.9.

At any temperature T > 0 K

At any finite temperature T > 0 K, the Fermi distribution function smoothly

decreases to zero as shown in Fig 3.10.
Fig. 3.10 Graphical representation of Fermi function at non-zero temperature

Explanation:

Due to the supply of thermal energy the electrons within the range of k BT below the

Fermi level (EF) alone takes the energy ≈ k BT and goes to higher energy state.

Hence at any temperature (T), empty states will also be available below (E F)

3.9 DENSITY OF ENERGY STATES AND AVERAGE

ENERGY OF ELECTRON AT 0 K

3.9.1 DENSITY OF ENERGY STATES

Definition: Density of states is defined as the number of available electron states

per unit volume in an energy interval .

Fig. 3.11 Energy levels in a sphere

Number of energy levels in a cubical metal piece

Let us consider two energy levels and as shown in Fig. 3.11. The number of energy
states between and can be found by finding the number of energy states between
the shells of radius and , from the origin.
4 3
The number of energy states within the sphere of radius 𝑛= 𝜋𝑛
3
Since , and will have only positive values, we have to take only one octant of the
sphere (i.e) 1/8th of the sphere volume.

The number of available energy states within the sphere of radius

¿
1
8 ( 4
3
𝜋 𝑛
3
)
1 3
¿ 𝜋 𝑛
6
1 3
The number of energy states within a sphere of radius 𝑛+𝑑𝑛= 6
𝜋 (𝑛+𝑑𝑛)

Number of available energy states between the spheres of radii and ,

1 3 1 3
𝑁 ( 𝐸 ) 𝑑𝐸 = 𝜋 (𝑛+ 𝑑𝑛) − 𝜋𝑛
6 6
1 3 3 2 2 3
¿ 𝜋 (𝑛 + 𝑑𝑛 +3 𝑛 𝑑𝑛+3 𝑑𝑛 𝑛 − 𝑛 )
6

As is small, higher orders of are neglected.

1 2
𝑁 ( 𝐸 ) 𝑑𝐸 = 𝜋 (3 𝑛 𝑑𝑛)
6
𝜋 2
¿ 𝑛 𝑑𝑛
2
𝜋
𝑁 ( 𝐸 ) 𝑑𝐸 = 𝑛(𝑛 𝑑𝑛) …(3.62)
2

Energy of an electron in a cubical metal is given by

𝑛2 h 2
𝐸= 2
8𝑚𝑎
2 8 𝑚 𝑎2
𝑛 = 2
𝐸 …(3.63)
h
 ( )√
2 1
8𝑚𝑎 2
𝑛= 2
𝐸
h …(3.64)

On differentiating eqn. (3.63), we get

( )
2
8𝑚𝑎
2 𝑛 𝑑𝑛= 2
𝑑𝐸
h

( )
2
8𝑚𝑎
𝑛 𝑑𝑛= 𝑑𝐸 …(3.65)
2 h2

On substituting eqn. (3.64) and (3.65) in eqn. (3.62), we get

[( ) ][( ) ]
2 1 2
𝜋 8𝑚𝑎 8𝑚𝑎
𝑁 ( 𝐸 ) 𝑑𝐸 = 2
√𝐸 𝑑𝐸
2 h
2
2h
2

( )
2 3
𝜋 8𝑚 𝑎
¿ 2
√ 𝐸 𝑑𝐸
4 h
2

Since each energy level provides two electron states,

( )
2 3
𝜋 8𝑚𝑎
𝑁 ( 𝐸 ) 𝑑𝐸 =2 2
√ 𝐸 𝑑𝐸
4 h
2

On simplifying the above equation, we get

( )
3
𝜋 8𝑚
𝑁 ( 𝐸 ) 𝑑𝐸 = 2
𝑎
3
√ 𝐸 𝑑𝐸
…(3.66)
2 h
2

Density of states is the number of energy states per unit volume. So, keeping in
the above equation, we get the density of states as

( )
3
𝜋 8𝑚
𝑍 ( 𝐸 ) 𝑑𝐸 = 2
√ 𝐸 𝑑𝐸
…(3.67)
2 h
2

3.9.2 CARRIER CONCENTRATION IN METALS

Definition: It is the number of electrons per unit volume in a given energy interval.
 𝑛=∫ 𝑍 ( 𝐸 ) 𝑑𝐸 𝐹 ( 𝐸 ) …(3.68)

On substituting from eqn. (3.67) in eqn. (3.68), we get

𝑛= ∫
𝜋 8𝑚 3
2 ( h
2 ) 2
√ 𝐸 𝑑𝐸 𝐹 ( 𝐸 )

.At 0 K, if , , then

𝑛=
𝜋
2 ( 8𝑚 3
h
2
0
2
∫ )
√ 𝐸 𝑑𝐸
𝐸3 / 2

( )
3
𝜋 8 𝑚 𝐹
𝑛= 2 0

2 h
2
3 /2

( )
3
𝜋 8 𝑚 3/ 2
𝑛= 2
𝐸𝐹
3 h
2 0 …(3.69)

( )
3
3 / 2 3 𝑛 h2 2
𝐸 𝐹0 =
𝜋 8𝑚 …(3.70)

Fermi energy at 0 K

( )
2
3 𝑛 h2
𝐸 𝐹0 = 3
…(3.71)
𝜋 8 𝑚

3.9.3 AVERAGE ENERGY OF AN ELECTRON AT 0 K

The average energy of an electron at 0 K can be determined from the expression

shown below
Total energy of all the electrons at 0 K ( 𝐸 𝑇 )
𝐸 𝑎𝑣𝑒 = …(3.72)
Total number of electrons at 0 K ( 𝑁 𝑇 )

In general, the total number of electrons in a solid can be obtained by counting the
total number of states that have been occupied by electrons, i.e.,

𝑁 𝑇 =∫ 𝑁 ( 𝐸 ) 𝑑𝐸 𝐹 ( 𝐸 ) …(3.73)
On substituting from eqn. (3.66) in eqn. (3.73), we get

( )
3
𝜋 8𝑚
𝑁 𝑇 =∫ √ 𝐸 𝑑𝐸 𝐹 ( 𝐸 )
2 3
𝑎
2 h
2

At 0 K, for all values of and otherwise, then

( )
3
𝜋 8𝑚
𝑁𝑇 = 2
𝑎 3∫ √ 𝐸 𝑑𝐸
2 h
2
0
𝐸3 /2

( )
3
𝜋 8𝑚 3 𝐹
¿ 2
𝑎 0

2 h
2
3/ 2

( )
3
𝜋 8𝑚 3 3/2
𝑁𝑇 = 2
𝑎 𝐸𝐹 …(3.74)
3 h
2 0

Eqn. (3.74) is the total number of electrons at 0 K in a cubical solid of volume a 3.

Now, in a metal, not all the electrons posses the same energy. The energy of an
electron is dependent on the energy state that an electron occupies. Also, from
Pauli’s exclusion principle, no two electrons occupy the same state. However, as
there is degeneracy in a 3-dimensional solid, multiple states may have the same
energy. So, electrons occupying those degenerate states posses the same energy.

With this knowledge on the energy of the electrons, the total energy of the electrons
in a solid is given by

𝐸 𝑇 =∫ 𝑁 ( 𝐸 ) 𝑑𝐸 𝐹 ( 𝐸 ) 𝐸 …(3.75)

In the above eqn. (3.75), the product of and gives the number of occupied states
with energy , i.e., the number of electrons with energy .

On substituting from eqn. (3.66) in eqn. (3.75), we get

( )
3
𝜋 8𝑚
𝐸 𝑇 =∫ √ 𝐸 𝑑𝐸 𝐹 ( 𝐸 ) 𝐸
3
2
𝑎
2 h2
At 0 K, for all values of and otherwise, then the above equation becomes
 𝐸𝐹

( )
3
𝜋 8𝑚
0

𝐸𝑇 =
2 h
2
2
𝑎
3
∫ 𝐸❑
1/2
𝐸 𝑑𝐸
0

𝐸5 /2

( )
3
𝜋 8𝑚 3 𝐹
¿ 2
𝑎 0

2 h2 5/ 2

( )
3
𝜋 8𝑚 3 5 /2
𝐸𝑇 = 2
𝑎 𝐸𝐹 …(3.76)
5 h
2 0

On substituting eqn. (3.74) and (3.76) in eqn. (3.72), we get

( )
3
𝜋 8 𝑚 2 3 5 / 2
2
𝑎 𝐸𝐹
5 h 0

𝐸 𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
( 8h𝑚 )
3
𝜋 3 3 / 2
2
𝑎 𝐸𝐹
3 2 0

3
𝐸 𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 𝐸 𝐹
5 0

3.10 ENERGY BANDS IN SOLIDS

In a single isolated atom, the electrons in each orbit have definite energy associated
with it. But in case of solids all the atoms are close to each other, so the energy
levels of outermost orbit electrons are affected by the neighbouring atoms. 

When two single or isolated atoms brought close to each other, then the electrons in
the outermost orbit of the two atoms interact or shared with each other. i.e, the
electrons in the outermost orbit of one atom experiences an attractive force from the
nearest or neighbouring atomic nucleus.  Due to this, the energies of the electrons
will not be in same level, the energy levels of electrons are changed to a value which
is higher or lower than that of the original energy level of the electron.

The electron in same orbit exhibits different energy levels. The grouping of these
different energy levels is called energy band. However, the energy levels of inner
orbit electrons are not much affected by the presence of neighbouring atoms.
Fig. 3.12 Energy band diagram depicting the important energy bands in solid

3.10.1 IMPORTANT ENERGY BANDS IN SOLIDS

There are number of energy bands in solids but three of them are very important, to
understand the behaviour of solids. These energy bands are 

 Valence band

 Conduction band

 Forbidden band or forbidden gap

Valence band

The energy band which is formed by grouping the range of energy levels of
the valence electrons or outermost orbit electrons is called as valence band.

Valence band is present below the conduction band as shown in Fig. 3.12. Electrons
in the valence band have lower energy than the electrons in conduction band.

The electrons present in the valence band are loosely bound to the nucleus of atom.

Conduction band 

The energy band which is formed by grouping the range of energy levels of the free
electrons is called as conduction band.
Generally, the conduction band is empty but when external energy is applied the
electrons in the valence band jumps in to the conduction band and becomes free
electrons. Electrons in the conduction band have higher energy than the electrons in
valence band.

The conduction band electrons are not bound to the nucleus of atom. 

Forbidden gap

The energy gap which is present between the valence band and conduction band by
separating these two energy bands is called as forbidden band or forbidden gap. 

In solids, electrons cannot stay in forbidden gap because there is no allowed energy
state in this region. Forbidden gap is the major factor for determining the electrical
conductivity of a solid. The classification of materials as insulators, conductors and
semiconductors is mainly based on forbidden gap.

The energy associated with forbidden band is called energy gap and it is measured
in unit electron volt (eV).

1 eV = 1.6 × 10-19 J

The applied external energy in the form of heat or light must be equal to the
forbidden gap in order to push an electron from valence band to the conduction
band. 

3.10.2 CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS BASED ON FORBIDDEN

GAP

Forbidden gap plays a major role for determining the electrical conductivity of
material. Based on the forbidden gap materials are classified in to three types, they
are

 Insulators

 Conductors

 Semiconductors
 Fig. 3.13 Energy band diagram of an insulator

Insulators

The materials which do not allow the flow of electric current through them are called
as insulators. Insulators are also called as poor conductors of electricity.

Normally, in insulators the valence band is fully occupied with electrons due to
sharing of outer most orbit electrons with the neighbouring atoms. Whereas the
conduction band is empty, i.e., no electrons are present in conduction band as in
Fig. 3.13. The forbidden gap between the valence band and conduction band is very
large in insulators. The energy gap of insulator is approximately equal to 15 electron
volts (eV).

The electrons in valence band cannot move because they are locked up between
the atoms. In order to move the valence band electron into the conduction band
large amount of external energy is required that is equal to the forbidden gap. But in
insulators, this is practically impossible to move the valence band electrons into
conduction band.

Rubber, wood, diamond, plastic are some examples of insulators. Insulators such as
plastics are used for coating of electrical wires. These insulators prevent the flow of
electricity to unwanted points and protect us from electric shocks.
 Fig. 3.14 Energy band diagram of a conductor

Conductors

The materials which easily allow the flow of electric current through them are called
as conductors. Metals such as copper, silver, iron, aluminium etc. are good
conductors of electricity.

In a conductor, valence band and conduction band overlap each other as shown in
Fig. 3.14. Therefore, there is no forbidden gap in a conductor. A small amount of
applied external energy provides enough energy for the valence band electrons to
move in to conduction band. Therefore, more number of valence band electrons can
easily moves in to the conduction band. 

When valence band electrons move to conduction band they become free electrons.
The electrons present in the conduction band are not attached to the nucleus of an
atom.

In conductors, large numbers of electrons are present in conduction band at room

temperature, i.e., conduction band is almost full with electrons. But valence band is
partially occupied with electrons. The electrons present in the conduction band
moves freely by carrying the electric current from one point to other.
 Fig. 3.15 Energy band diagram of a semiconductor

Semiconductors

The material which has electrical conductivity between that of a conductor and an
insulator is called as semiconductor. Silicon, germanium and graphite are some
examples of semiconductors.

In semiconductors, the forbidden gap between valence band and conduction band is
very small. It has a forbidden gap of about 1 electron volt (eV) as shown in Fig.
3.15. 

At low temperature, the valence band is completely occupied with electrons and
conduction band is empty because the electrons in the valence band do not have
enough energy to move in to conduction band. Therefore, semiconductor behaves as
an insulator at low temperature.

However, at room temperature some of the electrons in valence band gains enough
energy in the form of heat and moves in to conduction band. 

When the temperature increases, the number of valence band electrons moving in to
conduction band also increases. This shows that electrical conductivity of the
semiconductor increases with increase in temperature. i.e. a semiconductor has
negative temperature co-efficient of resistance. The resistance of semiconductor
decreases with increase in temperature
 Key Points to Remember
• Drift velocity () - Average velocity acquired by the free electron in the presence
of an external applied electric field.
• Mobility () - Drift velocity acquired by the free electron per unit applied electric
field.
• Relaxation time () - Time taken by the free electrons to reach the normal state
from the disturbed condition in the presence of electric field.
• Electrical Conductivity Thermal Conductivity

• Wiedemann-Franz Law

• Particle in 3D box: Eigen function

Eigen value

• Degeneracy – For several combinations of quantum numbers we have same

energy eigen value but different eigen functions. Such states and energy levels
are called Degenerate states.
• Non-degeneracy - For various combinations of quantum number if we have
same energy eigen value and same (one) eigen function then such states and
energy levels are called non-degenerate states.
• Fermi energy level () - Maximum energy level upto which the electrons can be
filled at 0 K.
• Fermi function F(E)

• Density of states - the number of available electron states per unit volume in an
energy interval .

• Carrier Concentration In Metals - the number of electrons per unit volume in

a given energy interval dE.

• Fermi Energy at 0 K
 SOLVED PROBLEMS

1. Calculate the Lorentz number on the basis of classical theory.

Solution:

From Wiedemann-Franz law,

( )
2
𝐾 𝑘𝐵
= 𝐿𝑇where𝐿= 3
𝜎 2 𝑒
By substituting the values, we get

( )
−23 2
3 1.38 x ×10 −8 −2
𝐿= =1.12 ×10 W Ω K
2 1. 602× 10 −19

The Lorentz number on the basis of classical theory is .

2.Thermal and electrical conductivities of Cu at 20°C are 390 W/m//K and

5.87 x 107 (Ωm)-1 respectively. Calculate the Lorentz number.

Solution:
𝐾
𝐿=
𝜎 𝑇
390
¿ 7
5.87 × 10 × 293
¿ 2.267 ×10 −8 W Ω K −2
3.The density and atomic weight of Cu are 8900 kg/m 3 and 63.5
respectively. The relaxation time of electrons in Cu at 300 K is 10 -14­­ s.
Calculate the electrical conductivity of copper.

Solution:

The density of electrons in copper can be calculated as follows

Avogadr o ′ s constant × D ensity × N umber of free electrons per atom
𝑛=
A tomic weight
6.022 × 10 23 × 8900 × 1 × 10 3
¿
63.5
¿ 8.44 × 1028 m −3
The electrical conductivity of copper can be calculated as follows
𝑛 𝑒2 𝜏
𝜎=
𝑚𝑒
− 19 2
× ( 1.6 × 10 ) × 10 −14
28
8.44 × 10
¿ −31
9.1× 10
¿ 2.374 ×10 7 Ω−1 𝑚−1
4. Calculate the drift velocity of conduction electrons in copper at a
temperature of 300K, when a copper wire of length 2 m and resistance of
0.02 Ω carries a current of 15 A. Given that μ= 4.3 x 10 -3 m2 / V- s.

Solution:

Given data: Length of the wire, = 2 m

Resistance of the wire, = 0.02 Ω

Current through the wire, = 15 A

Mobility, = 4.3 x 10-3 m2 V-1 s-1

From Ohm’s law, we shall find the potential difference between the ends of the wire
as follows
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
¿ 15 ×0.02=0.3 V
Then, the electric field can be calculated as follows
𝑉
𝐸=
𝑙
0.3 −1
¿ =0.15 V m
2
Finally, the drift velocity is calculated as shown below
𝑣 𝑑 =𝜇 𝐸
¿ 4.5 × 10−3 × 0.15=0 . 6 5 ×10− 3 m s− 1
5. Calculate the conduction electron density in caesium, if its Fermi energy
is 1.55 eV.
Solution:

Given data: Fermi energy, = 1.55 eV

= 1.55 x 1.602 x 10-19 J

= 2.48 x 10-19 J

The density of conduction electrons in caesium can be calculated from the Fermi
energy through the following relation

( )
3 3
𝜋 8𝑚 2
𝑛= 2
𝐸 𝐹
3 h
2

Other useful data to calculate the density of electrons are as given below

Mass of the electron, = 9.1 x 10-31 kg

Planck’s constant, = 6.63 x 10-34 J s

Using all the above data, the density of conduction electrons can be calculated as
follows

( )(
−3 1 3 3
𝜋 8 × 9 .1 ×10
𝑛= 2
2 . 48 ×10 )
−19 2

3 ( 6 .63 × 10−3 4 )2

¿ 8.61 × 1027 m − 3
6. Fermi temperature of a metal is 24600 K. Calculate the Fermi velocity of
electrons.

Solution:

Given data: Temperature of the metal, = 24600 K

The Fermi velocity of the electrons can be determined by equating the kinetic
energy of the electrons at the Fermi level to the thermal energy, which is given as
1 2 3
𝑚 𝑣 = 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
2 2

⇒ 𝑣=
√ 3 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
𝑚
Other useful data to calculate the Fermi velocity of electrons are as given below

Mass of the electron, = 9.1 x 10-31 kg

Boltzmann constant, = 1.38 x 10-23 J K-1

Now, on plugging the data, the Fermi velocity of the electrons can be calculated as
follows

𝑣=
√
3 ×1.38 × 10−23 ×24600
9.1× 10− 31
¿ 1.06 × 10 6 m s− 1
7. Evaluate the lowest energy that a neutron possesses while it is confined
inside the nucleus of an atom.

Solution:

Useful data to evaluate the lowest energy of a neutron inside the nucleus are as
follows

Typical size of a nucleus, = 10-14 m

Mass of a neutron, = 1.67 x 10-27 kg

Planck’s constant, = 6.626 x 10-34 J s

As the neutron is confined within a nucleus, the energy of a neutron inside the
nucleus can be calculated using the formula for the energy of a particle confined in
a 3-dimensional box, which is given as
h2
𝐸𝑛 𝑛 𝑦 𝑛𝑧 = 2
(𝑛 2𝑥 +𝑛 2𝑦 +𝑛2𝑧 )
𝑥
8𝑚 𝐿
For the energy of the particle to be lowest, we have .

So, the lowest energy of the neutron inside the nucleus is

h2 2 2 2
𝐸 111 = 2
(1 +1 +1 )
8𝑚 𝐿
( 6.6 26 × 10− 34 )2
¿ × (3)
− 14 2
× ( 10 )
−27
8 × 1.67 ×10
¿ 9.86 × 10 −13 J
 OTHER LEARNING MATERIALS

VIDEO LINKS
1. Free Electron Theory of Metals

2. Derivation of Electrical Conductivity of Metals from Classical Free Electron Theory

3. Derivation of Thermal Conductivity of Metals from Classical Free Electron Theory

4. Derivation of Density of States

5. Energy Bands in Solids

5. Band Theory of Solids – 1

6. Band Theory of Solids – 2

7. Band Theory of Solids – 3

WEBSITE LINKS
8. Wiedemann–Franz law
https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/2399-6528/ab444a
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/thermo/thercond.html
2. Fermi distribution function
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/quantum/disfd.html
3. Band Theory of Solids

Notes
3. Particle in 3-D potential box – 1
4. Particle in a 3-D potential box - 2
3. Density of energy states and carrier concentration in metals
4. Metals, insulators and semiconductors
 QUIZ

After completing the course, students are instructed to take the following quiz to
quantify their understanding of the concepts on the conducting materials.

1. https://forms.gle/4Js19RLQ2dZDox5T7

2. https://forms.gle/KiuJ5JoDHoUZGQpJ7

3. https://forms.gle/66YDFH2DQcJ1GGL58

RESULTS
Repeat your learning, if your score is less than 60%.
Congratulations, if your score is above 90%.
 ASSIGNMENTS
1. List out conducting, semiconducting and insulating materials that you see at your
home or at other places. Your list must contain materials not less than five (05)
under each category. You need to name the material with its chemical formula
and its purpose.
2. A cubical box of size L is consisting of 25 identical, distinguishable and non-
interacting particles of mass m. Show the ground state arrangement of particles
at different energy levels.
3. Draw the band diagrams of conductors, semiconductors and insulators. You must
give at least two (02) elemental solids as examples under each category. Please
note that conductors have two band diagrams – one with the partially filed
valance band and the other with the overlap of valance and conduction bands.
So, in total, there must be four band diagrams and two (02) elemental solids as
examples under each category.
4. Plot to the scale the Fermi – Dirac distribution function for three (03) different
temperatures: 0, 1000 and 2000 K. Take the Fermi energy as 2 eV and use graph
sheet for the plot.
5. A Copper wire whose is 0.16 cm carries a steady current of 20 A. What is the
current density of wire? Also calculate the drift velocity of the electrons in
copper.  (Ans : J = 9.952 A/m2 , and vd = 7.35 x 10- 4 ms-1)
6. The thermal and electrical conductivities of Cu at 20°C are 390 Wm-1K–1 and 5.87
× 10–7 –1 m–1respectively. Calculate the Lorentz number. 
(Ans : 2.267 × 10–8 Wm-1K–1)
7. Calculate the electrical and thermal conductivities of a metal rod with relaxation
time 10 14 second at 300K. Also calculate the Lorentz number.(Density of electron
= 6 × 1028 m–3) (Ans :  = 1.6879 × 10–7  W –1m–1 ,  K = 123.927 Wm–1  K –
1
 , = 2.4474 × 10–18 W  K–2)
8. Calculate the drift velocity and mean free path of copper when it carries a
steady current of 10 amperes and whose radius is 0.08 cm. Assume that the
mean thermal velocity 1.6 × 10 6 m/s and the resistivity of copper 2 × 10 –8 m.
(Ans : (i) 36.6 x 10-5m/s (ii) 3.94
x 108m)
9. The resistivity of aluminum at room temperature is 2×10 –8 m. Calculate i) The
drift velocity ii) mean free path on the basis of classical free electron theory.
(Ans : (i) 0.396 ms-1; (ii) 2.65nm)
10. Using the Fermi function, evaluate the temperature at which there is 1%
probability in a solid will have an energy 0.5 eV above E F of 5 eV.  (Ans : 1260
K)
PART A – QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS
1. Define mean free path. (K1, CO3)

The average distance travelled by an electron between two successive collisions

inside a metal is known as mean free path.

2. Define relaxation time. (K1, CO3)

Relaxation time is the time taken by a free electron to reach its equilibrium position
from its disturbed position, due to the field applied.

3. How does the classical free electron theory lead to Ohm’s law?
(April/May 2018) (K3, CO3)

From classical free electron theory, current density is given by

J = 𝑛𝑒 𝑣 𝑑
¿ 𝑛𝑒 𝜇 𝐸
J = 𝜎 𝐸
The above relation is the microscopic form of the Ohm’s law. Hence, the classical
free electron theory has led to the Ohm’s law.

4. Define collision time (). (K1, CO3)

Collision time is the average time taken by a free electron between two successive
collisions.

5. Define drift velocity (). (May / June 2014) (K1, CO3)

The average velocity acquired by a free electron in a particular direction, due to the
application of electric field, is called drift velocity.

6. Define mobility of electron (µ). Write its unit?

(April / May 2015, Nov / Dec 2016) (K1, CO3)

Mobility is defined as drift velocity per unit electric field .

𝑣 𝑑
𝜇 =
𝐸
Its unit is m2 V-1 s-1.
7. Distinguish between drift velocity and thermal velocity of an electron.
(May/June 2016) (K2, CO3)

S.No Drift velocity Thermal velocity

Drift velocity is the average velocity Thermal velocity is the velocity of

1 acquired by the free electron in the the electron acquired due to
presence of the electric field change in temp.

The electrons moves in the direction The electron moves in random

2
opposite to that of the field direction

The velocity is very less in the order The velocity is very high in the
3
of 0.5 m/s order of 105 m/s

8. What are the sources of resistance in metals? (K1, CO3)

The resistance in metals is due to

 impurities present in metals

 temperature of the metal

 defect in the arrangement of atom

9. Mention postulates of classical free electron theory. (K1, CO3)

(i) A metal consists of very large number of free electrons which can move freely
throughout the body of the metal.

(ii) These free electrons move randomly in all possible directions just like gas
molecules in a container.

(iii) In the absence of electric field, free electrons move in a random manner.

(iv) In external electric field, electrons acquire applied electric field and begin to
move towards positive potential.

10. Define electrical conductivity. (K1, CO3)

Electrical conductivity (σ) is defined as the quantity of electricity flowing per

second through unit area of cross-section by maintaining unit potential gradient.
11. What are the merits of classical free electron theory?
(Nov/Dec 2014, May / June 2016) (K1, CO3)

(i) It verifies Ohm’s law.

(ii) It explains the electrical and thermal conductivities of metals.

(iii) It states Wiedemann-Franz law.

(iv) It explains optical properties of metals.

12. Mention the drawbacks of classical free electron theory.

(Nov / Dec 2014), (April / May 2015) (K1, CO3) (OR) What
are the properties of metals described inadequately by Drude’s model?
(Nov / Dec 2016) (K1, CO3)

(i) The phenomena such as Photo-electric effect, Compton effect and Black body
radiation could not be explained by classical free electron theory.

(ii) Electrical conductivity of semiconductors and insulators couldn’t be explained

using this model.

(iii) Ferromagnetism could not be explained by this theory.

(iv) Mismatch of theoretical and experimental value of Lorentz number.

(v) The theoretical and experimental values of specific heat and electronic
specific heat are not matched.

13. Define coefficient of thermal conductivity (K) of a material.

(K1, CO3)

It is defined as the quantity of heat conducted per second through unit area of
cross-section by maintaining unit temperature gradient.
𝐾 =𝑄
14. Define density of states. What is its use?

Density of states is defined as the number of available energy states per unit
volume in an energy interval . It is used to calculate the number of charge carriers
per unit volume of the solid.
15. State Wiedemann - Franz law. (April / May 2015) (K1, CO3)

Wiedmann-Franz law states that the ratio of thermal conductivity K to electrical

conductivity σ of a metal is directly proportional to the absolute temperature of the
metal (T).
𝐾 𝐾
∝ 𝑇(or) = 𝐿𝑇
𝜎 𝜎
L is proportionality constant and it is known as Lorentz Number

16. Calculate Lorentz number on the basis of classical theory. (K3, CO3)

From Wiedemann - Franz law,

( )
2
𝐾 𝑘𝐵
= 𝐿𝑇where𝐿= 3
𝜎 2 𝑒
By substituting the values, we get

( )
−23 2
3 1.38 x ×10 −8 −2
,
𝐿= =1.12 ×10 W Ω K
2 1. 602× 10 −19

But the quantum mechanically calculated experimental value of Lorentz number is

17. Define Fermi level. (K1, CO3)

It is the maximum energy level up to which the electrons can be filled at 0 K.

18. Write Fermi – Dirac distribution function. (K1, CO3)

The probability of an electron occupying an energy level E is given by Fermi - Dirac

distribution function.

1
𝐹 ( 𝐸 )= 𝐸− 𝐸 𝐹
𝑘𝐵 𝑇
1+ 𝑒
EF - Fermi energy, kB – Boltzmann constant

19. Write the classification of materials based on forbidden gap. (K1, CO3)

Based on the forbidden gap materials are classified in to three types, they are

 Insulators

 Conductors

 Semiconductors
20. What is meant by degenerate and non-degenerate states? (K1,
CO3)

If the energy state which has same energy eigen value but different eigen functions
for several combination of quantum numbers, then it is called as degenerate state.

If the energy state which has same energy eigen value and same eigen functions for
several combination of quantum numbers, then it is called as non-degenerate
state.

21. Define zero probability, unit probability and fractional probability.

(K1, CO3)

Zero probability: It is the state which remains always empty and the electrons
cannot be filled in it, i.e. F(E) = 0

Unit probability: It is the state which is always filled with the electron, i.e. F(E) =
1.

Fractional probability: It is the state which may be filled or empty or partially

filled by electron or it is the state which is filled by the electrons for some time and
then will become empty, i.e. F(E) will be a fraction like 0.5, 0.6.

22. Explain the concept of hole and give its advantage.

(April/ May 2018) (K1, CO3)

When the electrons are accelerated in a periodic potential, its mass varies and it
moves in the direction opposite to the direction of the applied field. This variation of
mass of an electron is called as negative mass behaviour of electrons.

Hole: The electrons with negative mass is called as hole, which has same positive
mass as that an electron but instead of negative charge, the hole will posses positive
charge.

Advantage: If we have ‘n’ number of empty states in a nearly filled band, then
these ‘n’ number of empty states can be considered as ‘n’ number of holes.
 PART B – QUESTIONS
1. Derive expressions for electrical and thermal conductivities on the basis of
classical free electron theory and deduce the value of Lorentz number.
(Nov/Dec 2014, Nov/Dec 2016, May/June 2016) (K1, CO3)

2. Deduce a mathematical for electrical conductivity of conducting materials and

hence obtain Wiedemann Franz law. (April / May 2018, 2015) (K1,
CO3)

3. On the basis of classical free electron theory, derive an expression for thermal
conductivity of metals. State and prove the Wiedemann-Franz Law. (K1, CO3)

4. What is density of states? Derive an expression for the density of states.

(April / May 2018) (K1, CO3)

5. Derive an expression for the density of states and based on that calculate the
carrier concentration in metals. (K1, CO3)
(May/June 2014, Nov/Dec 2014, April/May 2015, Nov/Dec 2016)

6. Write Fermi-Dirac distribution function. Explain how Fermi function varies with
Temperature. (K1, CO3)

7. Explain the origin of band gap when the electron is moving in a periodic
potential. Also explain the effective mass of electron in a periodic potential.
(K1, CO3)

8. Discuss qualitatively how band theory of solids leads to the classification of solids
into conductors, semiconductors and insulators.. (K2, CO3)
SUPPORTIVE ONLINE CERTIFICATION
COURSES
NPTEL

1. Introduction to Solid State Physics

2. Physics of Materials
3. Processing of semiconducting materials

Coursera
4. Degenerate Fermi- Dirac gases
5. Energy Band Structure – Quantum Theory of Semiconductors

Udemy
6.Conductivity of conductors and semiconductors and their uses
7.Engineering Physics
 REAL-TIME APPLICATIONS IN DAY
TO DAY LIFE AND INDUSTRY
1. Metals with high electrical conductivity are used as power transmission lines and
also at homes for electrical wiring.

2. In all electrical and electronic devices, the electrical connection between different
components of the circuit is established by metals with high electrical
conductivity. In the below figure, metals are identified as the continuous lines
which connect different components of the printed circuit board.

3. Metals due to their high thermal conductivity are used in cookware for a fast
transfer of heat to the food items being cooked. This helps in cooking faster.

4. Insulators provide electrical and thermal insulation to devices and in turn, provide
safety and avoid potential hazards.
5. Semiconductors find applications as LED bulbs at homes and other places, and as
electronic component in TV, computer, laptop, mobile phone and so on.

6. Wiedmann- Franz Law for copper at 1000C circuits -

7. One-dimensional photonic crystal: The Kronig-Penney model

8. Noniterative Methods for Real Time Imaging of Conducting Materials

 CONTENT BEYOND THE SYLLABUS

1. E vs. k, Brillouin Zone and the Origin of Energy Bands

2. Bloch’s theorem

3. Kronig-Penny Model

4. Concept of Effective Mass

62
 PRESCRIBED TEXTBOOKS AND
REFERENCE BOOKS
TEXTBOOKS

1. M.N. Avadhanulu and P.G. Kshirsagar, “A text book of Engineering Physics”, S.

Chand and Company, New Delhi, 2014.

2. R.K. Gaur and S.L. Gupta, “Engineering Physics”, Dhanpat Rai Publications (P)
Ltd., Eighth Ed., New Delhi, 2001.

3. V. Rajendran, “Materials Science”, Tata McGraw-Hill, 2011.

4. R.A. Serway and J.W. Jewett, “Physics for Scientists and Engineers”, Ninth Ed.,
Cengage Learning, 2014.

5. C. Kittel, “Introduction to Solid State Physics”, 8 th Ed., John Wiley & Sons, NJ,
USA, 2005.

REFERENCE BOOKS
6. D. Halliday, R. Resnick and J. Walker, “Fundamentals of Physics”, 9 th Ed., John
Wiley & sons, 2011.

7. R.P. Feynman, “The Feynman Lectures on Physics - Vol. I, II and III”, The New
Millennium Edition, 2012.

8. N.W. Aschroft and N.D. Mermin, “Solid State Physics”, Harcourt College
Publishers, 1976.

9. S.O. Pillai, “Solid state physics”, New Age International, 2015.

10. M.A. Wahab, “Solid State Physics”, 3 rd Edition, Narosa Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.,
2015

11. N. Garcia and A. Damask, “Physics for Computer Science Students”, Springer-
Verlag, 2012.
 MINI PROJECT SUGGESTIONS

1. Which Material Conduct Electricity?

2. Basic Circuit Kit – Conductors And Insulators
3. What Conducts Electricity?
4. Photoelectric Effect
5. Resistivity By Four Probe Method
6. Thermal Conductivity – Resistance: Materials
 Thank you

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