ANALISIS DATA KUALITATIF

(CONSTANT COMPARATIVE METHOD)

Prof. Dr. JOKO NURKAMTO, M.Pd.

UNIVERSITAS SEBELAS MARET
jokonurkamto@gmail.com
 PENGERTIAN ANALISIS DATA

Merriam and Tisdell (2016, p. 202) argue that data analysis

is “the process of making sense out of the data”; while
Neuman (2014, p. 350) asserts that “data analysis is a
search for patterns in data”, that is, recurrent behaviors,
objects, belief systems, and relationships. A slight different
idea is proposed by Corbin & Strauss (2015, p. 85), saying
that data analysis in a qualitative research is “the act of
taking data, thinking about it, and denoting concepts to
stand for the analyst’s interpretation of the meaning
intended by the participant”.

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 CONSTANT COMPARATIVE METHOD
Constant comparative method is “a method of analysis that
generates successively more abstract concepts and
theories through inductive processes of comparing data
with data, data with code, code with code, code with
category, category with category, and category with
concept. In the last stages of analysis, researchers
compare their major categories with those in the relevant
scholarly literatures. Comparisons then constitute each
stage of analytic development. Grounded theories use this
method to reveal the properties and range of the emergent
categories and to raise the level of abstraction of their
developing analyses.” (Charmaz, 2014, p. 342).
 PROSEDUR ANALISIS DATA
The data are analyzed by means of a process termed constant
comparisons. In doing constant comparisons, (1) data are broken
down into manageable pieces. (2) Data that are similar in nature
are grouped together under the same conceptual heading. (3)
Through further analysis, concepts are grouped together by the
researcher to form categories (sometimes referred to as
themes). (4) The different categories are integrated around a
core category. (5) The core category describes -- in a few words
-- what the researcher identifies as the major theme of the
study. (6) Taken together, the core category and other
categories provide the structure of the theory (Corbin & Strauss,
2015, pp. 7-8).
QUALITATIVE DATA REDUCTION
PROCESS

Adu, 2019, p. 26
A STREAMLINED CODES-TO-THEORY
MODEL FOR QUALITATIVE INQUIRY

Adapted from Saldana, 2016, p. 14

ALUR PENELITIAN KUALITATIF
 DATA
“Data, or raw data, are the basic information
researchers gather using specific data collection
instruments from particular samples … Quantitative
data comprises numbers such as test scores and any
other quantified characteristics of the participants or
events … Qualitative data include non-numerical data –
mainly in the form of narratives – but also pictures and
audio and video recordings … Data are the building
blocks of research – based on them new knowledge is
produced” (Riazi, 2016, p. 78).
 CODE
Code is “the short label the grounded theorist
constructs to depict what is happening in a piece of
data. Codes sort, synthesize and most significantly,
analyze data. Codes connect raw data with the
grounded theorist’s conceptualization of them. The
best codes are short, simple, precise, and analytic”
(Charmaz, 2014, p. 341).
 CODING
“Coding is the process of organizing the material into
chunks or segments of text and assigning a word or
phrase to the segment in order to develop a general
sense of it” (Creswell & Creswell, 2018, p. 247).
 THE CODING
PROCESS FOR
QUALITATIVE
DATA ANALYSIS
(Neuman, 2014, p.
348)
 OPEN CODING
We perform open coding as a first pass through
the collected data. As we review the data, we are
identifying concepts and themes and assigning
initial codes or labels to them. This is our first
attempt to condense the mass of raw data into
analytic categories. The degree of detail of data
coding depends on the research question, the
“richness” of the data, and our purposes.
(Neuman, 2014, p. 344).
OPEN CODING
 AXIAL CODING
This type of coding is a second pass through the data. In
axial coding, our primary focus is on the collection of codes
and the initial, preliminary concepts or themes from the
open-coding process. In this second pass, we focus on the
initial concepts and themes more than on the raw data.
Nonetheless, we can continue to review the data and add
new concepts and themes. In this sense, a milder kind of
open coding continues as you axial-code. During this
second pass through the data, new codes, themes, or
concepts may emerge, and we should add them (Neuman,
2014, p. 346).
.
AXIAL CODING
 SELECTIVE CODING
Selective coding is a last pass through the data. By this phase we
probably have identified the major themes for our study. Selective
coding involves scanning the data using the central themes and
concepts. We are looking selectively in the data for several strong
examples that offer clear support for each concept and theme.

Selective coding occurs after data collection ended, after we have

well-developed concepts and themes, and as we are finalizing
concepts and themes into an overall analysis. In this phase, we
organize the concepts and themes and build toward a few main
generalizations or central themes (Neuman, 2014, p. 347).
.
SELECTIVE CODING
 CATEGORIZING
Categorizing is “the analytic step in grounded theory of
selecting certain codes as having overriding significance or
abstracting common themes and patterns in several codes
into an analytic concept. As the researcher categorizes, he
or she raises the conceptual level of the analysis from
description to a more abstract, theoretical level. The
researcher then tries to define the properties of the category,
the conditions under which it is operative, the conditions
under which it changes, and its relation to other categories.
Grounded theorists make their most significant theoretical
categories into the concepts of their theory” (Charmaz, 2014,
p. 341).
.
 CONCEPT
“Concepts are abstract ideas that account for the
data and have specifiable properties and
boundaries. Grounded theorist construct fresh
concepts from inductive data and check and
develop them through abduction … Although most
scholars view theories as demonstrating
relationships between concepts, many grounded
theorists focus on developing one concept”
(Charmaz, 2014, p. 342).
 THEME
The term “theme” is best used to describe an
integrating, relational statement derived from the data
that identifies both content and meaning. A theme is
an outcome of coding, categorizing, and analytic
reflection” (Bazely, 2013, p. 190).
STRUCTURE OF A THEMATIC
NETWORK

Bazely, 2013, p. 193

 ASSERTION
A assertion is “a statement that proposes a summative,
interpretive observation of the local context of a study”
(Saldana, 2016, p. 15).
 THEORY
A theory is “a bundled system of principles that serve
to explain certain phenomena” (Tracy, 2020, p. 47).
At a basic level, you are ‘doing theory’ whenever you
suggest a relationship between ideas or between
categories (Bazely, 2013, p. 327).
Theory refers to social processes, described it as
involving a systematic linking of concepts, grounded in
data, and able to be tested (by comparison with further
cases) (Bazely, 2013, p. 329).
 LEVELS OF THEORY
“Theory development begins with ideas or concepts as analytical
tools. Linkages (or relationships) are established between
concepts, initially at a local level. Often in qualitative research,
theory development does not extend beyond local theory,
grounded in the particular experience of a particular sample.
Substantive theory at a mid-range level integrates and further
develops discrete local theories around a particular social or
behavioral phenomenon. As the scope, range, and conceptual
complexity are extended, theory becomes more abstract, less
tied to the specific detail of the phenomenon; this is referred to
as formal or general theory. At a higher level of abstraction
again, we have grand theory” (Bazely, 2013, p. 330).
 HASIL ANALISIS DATA
Corbin & Strauss (2015) identify three main
outcomes of qualitative research: (1) description,
(2) conceptual ordering, and (3) theory.
 DESCRIPTION
A description is a statement that gives details about
objects, scenes, events, actions, emotions, moods,
aspirations, and so forth. Description draws on
ordinary vocabulary to convey ideas about these
things. However, description may make use of similes
(such as “She is as innocent as an angel.”) and
metaphors (such as “She is an angel.”) when ordinary
words fail to make the point or more colorful mental
pictures are called for (Corbin & Strauss, 2015, p. 59).
 CONCEPTUAL ORDERING
Conceptual ordering refers to the organization of data into
discrete categories according to their properties and
dimensions, then the utilization of the description to
elucidate those categories. Most social science analyses
consist of some variety of conceptual ordering.
Researchers attempt to make sense out of their data by
organizing them according to a classificatory scheme, such
as types or stages. In the process, items are identified from
data and defined according to their various general
properties and dimensions (Corbin & Strauss, 2015, p. 61).
 THEORY
Theory denotes a set of well-developed categories (themes,
concepts) that are systematically developed in terms of their
properties and dimensions and interrelated through statements
of relationship to form a theoretical framework that explains
something about a phenomenon. The cohesiveness of the
theory occurs when a researcher designates an even more
abstract concept to stand above the other concepts. The core
abstract concept summarizes (in a word or two) what the theory
is all about and provides a means for integrating the other
concepts around it. It is this last step of integration of concepts
around a core concept that elevates description or conceptual
ordering to the level of theory (Corbin & Strauss, 2015, p. 62).
.
 AN EXAMPLE OF THEORY IN EDUCATION
“The more that students are engaged with the
content of the lesson, the less management and
discipline problems that may occur in the
classroom” (Saldana, 2016: 278).

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 VALIDATING THE THEORY
A theory is constructed from data, but by the time of integration, it
represents an abstract rendition of that raw data. Therefore, it is important
to determine how well that abstraction fits with the raw data and to also
determine if anything important was omitted from the theoretical scheme.
There are several ways of validating the scheme. (1) One way is to go back
and compare the scheme against the raw data, doing a kind of high-level
comparative analysis. The theoretical scheme should be able to explain most
of the cases. (2) Another way to validate is to explain the findings to
respondents and request that they comment upon how well it seems to fit
their understanding of the problem under investigation. Naturally, a theory is
general. It doesn’t fit the details of every participant because the theory is a
reduction of data and built upon a compilation of cases, but participants
should be able to recognize themselves in the larger sense of each category
even if the details are different (Corbin & Strauss, 2014, pp. 198-199).
COMPONENTS OF DATA ANALYSIS:
INTERACTIVE MODEL
(Miles, Huberman, and Saldana, 2020, p. 10)

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 DATA CONDENSATION
“Data condensation refers to the process of selecting, focusing,
simplifying, abstracting, and/or transforming the data that
appear in the full corpus (body) of written-up field notes,
interview transcription, documents, and other empirical
materials … As data collection proceeds, further episodes of data
condensation occur: writing summary, coding, generating
categories, developing themes, and writing analytic memos”
(Miles, Huberman, Saldana, 2020, p. 8).
 DATA DISPLAY
“A display is an organized, condensed assembly
of information that allows analytic reflection and
action … The displays … include many types of
matrices, networks, and graphics” (Miles,
Huberman, Saldana, 2020, p. 9).
 DRAWING AND VERIFYING
CONCLUSIONS
“From the start of data collection, the qualitative analyst
interprets what things mean by noting patters, assertions,
propositions, explanations, and causal flows. The competent
researcher hold these conclusions lightly, maintaining openness
and skepticism, but the conclusions are still there, vague at first,
then increasingly explicit and grounded. ‘Final’ conclusions may
not appear until data collection is over, depending on the size of
the corpus of field notes; the coding, storage, and retrieval
methods used; the analytic prowess of the researcher” (Miles,
Huberman, Saldana, 2020, p. 9).
THANK YOU
Education is the most powerful
weapon which you can use to
change the world
(Nelson Mandela)