ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

CHAPTER-2b

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 1
2.7 Selection of Rotation Parameters
This section considers two approaches for selecting the rotation parameters. The
first involves three rotations above independent axes. The second approach uses a
single rotation about an axis whose orientation is specified.
2.7.1 Transformation by Three Rotation Angles
In the first approach, the three parameters are selected as three independent
rotation. This necessities selection of the axes about which these rotations are
made. To this end, there are infinite choices. These axes are selected in a way to
simplify calculations.
The choices of axes about which rotations are made are narrowed down by
carrying out the rotations about the axes of the coordinate frames. Denote the
initial position of the axes by frame A, with axes , and rotate frame A counter-
clockwise by angle θ about one of the axes to get and rotated frame B, whose axes
are . This rotation convention ensures that . Rotation about the is called a-1
rotation, about the axis a-2 rotation and rotation about the axes a-3 rotation.
These rotations are illustrated in figure 2.20
 b) c)

a)

Figure 2.20 Rotation Types: a) a-1 rotation; b) a-2 rotation; c) a-3 rotation

For a-1 rotation the unit vectors of the A and B frame are related by

Or, in the matrix form,

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 3
Where is called the rotation matrix and has the form for a-1 rotation

When the rotation is performed about the axis, that is a-2 rotation, the rotated
vectors become

And the rotation matrix has the form for rotation a-2

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 4
For a-3 rotation, the rotated vectors are

And the rotation matrix is

For all three rotation above, the determinant of the rotation

Matrix is 1, or . This verifies our earlier statement that the
determinant of the direction cosine matrix is unity.
Consider now the three rotation angles needed for a general
rotation sequence and how we can accomplish the three
rotations. To this end, two approaches can be identified: body
fixed rotation sequence and space fixed rotation sequence.
08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 5
Body-Fixed Rotation Sequence
This rotation sequence can be visualized by considering a
box and performing the rotations about a set of axes
attached to the Box. Begin with an initial coordinate set ,
align the box with it, and rotate the box about one of the
axes by an angle . Let us call the resulting orientation of the
box the D frame with the axes , which are now aligned with
the box.
There are three choices in the selection of the rotation axis.
The procedure shown in figure 2.21a for a-3-rotation, that
is, a rotation about the axis.
08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 6
 L2 Q͛
a) L2 b)
Q
L1 L3 L1 L3

P R͛ P͛

Figure 2.2.1 Body fixed rotation about 𝑎3 : a) initial position, b) after rotation by 𝜃
08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 7
The associated matrix is denoted by . Note that the subscript 1
denotes that this is the first rotation and the axis about which
the rotation takes place. As a result of the rotation, points PQR
on the box move to their new positions P’Q’R’ in figure 2.21b.
These positions do not change relative to box.
Next, rotate the box about one of the axes by an angle to
obtain the new orientation of the box, denoted as the H frame,
with axes . The rotation Matrix associated with this rotation is
denoted by Two axes can be chosen for this rotation. The first
rotation is carried about, say, then and the second rotation can
only be carried out about or . Otherwise, the two rotations
cannot be distinguished from each other.
08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 8
The third rotation is carried out by rotating the box
about one of the axes by to obtain the final frame B
with axes . For the same reason described above,
there are two axes to rotate about. The associated
rotation matrix is It follows that there are 3x2x2=12
different ways to carry out a body fixed rotation
sequences. These possible ways of selection are
known as Euler angle sequences, and they are
denoted by the number of the axes about which the
rotations are made.
08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 9
For example, if the first rotation is about the axis, the second
rotation is about the axis, and the third rotation is about the
axis, the rotation sequence is called 3-1-2.
Consider next the combined rotation. For the three rotations
above

Combining the three rotations gives

And the combined the rotation Matrix is

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 10
Space-Fixed Rotation Sequence
Here, we consider an initial coordinate system and perform all three
rotations about the axes of the initial coordinates. Let be the initial
axes. The first location is about one of or axes to yield the axes, with .
Then the coordinate axes are rotated about one of the axes, but not
about the same axis about which the first rotation was made. No that
the axis for the second rotation is not one of the axes of the rotated
frame. The third rotation is carried out about another one of . We can
show that the combined rotation matrix has the form

Where the combined rotation matrix is in inverse order of the body-

fixed transformations. Space-fixed rotations are not used as
frequently as body fixed rotations in Dynamics.
08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 11
Inversion
We have obtained values for the rotation matrix [R] (and hence
direction cosine matrix [C]) in terms of three rotation angles.
The inverse problem, that is, given [R] or [C] to find the three
rotation angles, is not as straightforward. To solve the inverse
problem one needs to be given, in addition to [R] (or [C]), the
sequence under which the individual rotation transformations
are made. Given this information, the rotation Matrix [R] is
constructed and the unknowns are solved for. In general, we
look at the general form of [R] and begin with the entire
entries of [R] that are the simplest to solve for.
08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 12
2.7.2 Resolving a Rotated Vector
So for, we have developed two coordinate systems and
look at the same vector in the two coordinate systems.
That is, if the coordinates of a particular vector are in the
A-frame, and the coordinates of the same vector are
in the B-frame, then

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 13
 a) P͛
P b)
E
E͛
→ → C͛
𝑞𝑖 𝑞𝑓
O C o

Figure 2.22 a) Initial position of a vector b) Rotated vector

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 14
Another problem of interest is to take vector, to rotate the
vector, and to find the coordinates of the rotated vector in the
original coordinate system. Consider the A frame and attach a
box (or a rectangle) to it, as shown in Figure 2.22a. Let us select
point P on the box and associated vector and . Next, we rotate
the vector (or the box to which the vector is attached). Figure
2.22b shows a rotation by about the axis. The rotated vector is
denoted by or , and this vector connects point O and P’, where
P’ is the point to which P moves after the rotation. Note that
rotating the vector is equivalent to rotating the box (or
rectangle) in which the vector is defined.
08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 15
Consider now a second frame B, which is obtained by rotating the A
frame the same way the vector was rotated. The initial and rotated
vectors can also be expressed in terms of the B frame as and . We
relate the initial and final vectors in the two coordinate systems by

Because the vector is attached to the reference frame, the initial vector
in the A frame has the same coordinates as the rotated vector in the B
frame. Hence

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 16
Combining the above two equations, the initial and final positions of
the vector in the initial A frame are expressed as

Let us compare equation (2.80) and (2.83). In equation (2.80) the

vector is fixed, but is viewed from two different coordinate frames. In
equation (2.83) the vector is rotated, but its initial and final locations
are viewed from the same reference frame.
In one case the transformation matrix is [R] and in the other it is [R]T,
denoting inverse transformations. It follows that viewing a fixed vector
from a rotated frame is exactly the opposite of rotating that vector (by
the same amount) and viewing the rotated vector from the fixed frame.
08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 17
2.7.3 Single Rotation About a Specified Axis
This rotation approach is based on Euler’s theorem,
which states that the most general transformation of a
rigid body with one fixed point can be described as a
single rotation about a certain axis going through the
fixed point. The axis about which the rotation is made
is called the principle line and is denoted by n, as shown
in Figure 2.23a. The unit vector along this axis is expressed as
. The rotation angle is called the principal angle and is denoted
by .
08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 18
08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 19
The direction cosines of the axis of rotation are not independent and
they obey the relationship . Given to direction cosines, the third can
be ascertained(confirmed) to within value. Hence, only two of the
parameters are independent. The rotation angle becomes the third
parameter. When the sign of the third direction cosine is changed,
this means the principal line is pointing in the opposite direction and
the same transformation can be achieved by reversing the sign of .

Given a vector and rotating it by about axis n, the rotated vector,

denoted by , can be expressed as

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 20
Or, in column Vector notation

Or

Where is the skew-symmetric matrix associated with the column vector .

The validity of the above relationship can be demonstrated by defining a
coordinate system with direction and rotating the coordinate system about n by .
Referring to the rotated coordinate system as as shown in figure 2.23b, the two
sets of vectors are related by

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 21
The angle is not a rotation parameter; rather, it is the angle between
the principal line and the vector . Figure 2.23c shows the side view.
Now, consider the initial and rotated vectors and and denote the
magnitude of these vectors by q. Because is obtained by rotating about
n, the two vectors have the same components along the initial and
rotated axes. These vectors are written as

Substitution of the value for from the above equation leads to

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 22
This equation can be written as

The first term following the equal sine in the above equation is
recognized as .
Noting that , the second term can be written as
. Finally, we note that

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 23
The conclusion is that equation (2.84) and equation (2.90) are
equivalent. Equations (2.85)-(2.86) give the relationship
between initial and final positions of a vector in column vector
format. Hence, considering an initial frame and rotating it by
angle about n to get a rotated frame, the direction cosine
matrix between the two frames has the form

Which is an additional way of collecting the rotation matrix.

Given a rotation matrix [R], calculation of the associated
principal line and rotation angle will be discussed later.
08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 24
2.7.4 Finite Rotations Do Not Commute
The preceding analysis leads to the conclusion that the order in which
rotations of coordinates are performed makes a difference in the
orientation of the transform coordinate system. This holds true whether
the rotations are performed as a body-fixed rotation sequence or as
space-fixed rotations. We can verify this usually by taking a book and
rotating it about two axes in different sequences.
The procedure is Illustrated in figure 2.24 for a body fix rotation sequence.
Begin with XYZ Frame, where the book lies on the XZ plane. Rotate the
book by 90˚ about the X axis to get the X’Y’Z’ coordinates and then rotate
about the Z’ axis by 90˚ to get the xyz coordinates. Repeating the
procedure with first rotating about the Z and then X’ coordinate leads to a
08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 25
different orientation of the book.
The conclusion is that sequences of finite rotations in
three dimensions cannot be expressed as vectors, as the
commutativity rule does not hold.
It follows that there does not exist an angular position
vector to differentiate in order to obtain angular
velocity, except for the special case of plane motion. The
subsequent sections will provide definitions for the
angular velocity of a reference frame.

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 26
 Z x
Y’
Rotation by 90° Rotation by 90°
about Z͛ y
about X

Y Z’
Z͕͛Z

X
X’ X

Z Z͕͛Z Y

Rotation by 90°
Y͛ about X͛

Y X͛ X͕͛X

Rotation by 90°
about Z
X
Z
08.05.2023
Figure 2.24 I.OZKOL 27
Example 2.8
Given rotation matrix [R]

Find the rotation angles if the coordinate axes are obtained by a

3-1-3 transformation.
For a 3-1-3 transformation with angles the combined rotation
matrix is expressed as

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 28
Where

Carrying out the algebra, the combined rotation matrix has the form

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 29
Where the compact notation is used, where s the denotes sine and c
denotes the cosine functions. For example, when proceeding to
identify two rotation angles, it is convenient to begin with the
simplest expression, which in this case is

Where are the rotation angles in the range of to . Comparing the

other simple elements in the rotation matrix yields

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 30
Beginning with the assumption that that Examining the values of and
leads to

It follows that the sines of both these angles are negative, and we
conclude from equations [f] and [g]
that .
The next step is to check the accuracy of the assumption that we
made. Calculating any of the remaining elements of [R], say , gives

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 31
But , so the assumption made earlier about is incorrect, it
follows that . Following the same procedure as an equation [h]
leads to

and the conclusion is

Substituting these values into or in any other element of [R],

the correctness of results in equation [] is confirmed.
08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 32
Example 2.9
An xyz coordinate system is obtained by rotating the XYZ coordinates
about the line n that makes an angle of with the X-axis, with the Y-axis
and is perpendicular to the Z axis, as shown in figure 2.25. Calculate the
direction matrix [c] between XYZ and xyz when the rotation is . Also,
find the coordinates of the rotation of Point P, whose position before
rotation is given by The direction cosines of the principal line are

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 33
08.05.2023
Figure 2.25 Rotation
I.OZKOL
axis n 34
And associated matrix is

Noting that and using equation (2.92) results in (

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 35
To find the location of Point P after the rotation, we can use the
relationship , where , with the result

Note that the rotated vector is expressed in terms of the XYZ frame.
The same result can also be obtained by successive coordinate
transformation.

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 36
Noting that for a body-fixed transformations the rotations are
conducted about one of the coordinates axes, the XYZ frame is rotated,
so that one of the axis of the rotated is the n-axis. This can be
accomplished by rotating about the Z-axis by and calling the rotated
axes X’Y’Z’. The associated rotation (a-3 rotation) matrix is

And X’ axis is the same as the n axis in figure 2.25. Then, rotate the
X’Y’Z’ frame and the vector about the X’ axis by to get the xyz frame.

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 37
The associated with (a-1 rotation) matrix is

The position of the vector after the rotation, in terms of the X’Y’Z’
frame, is

Noting that

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 38
So that , equation [g] can then be expressed in the XYZ frame as

Where the rotation Matrix between the initial and final frame is

This result can be explained by noting that the first rotation merely shift
to a different coordinate frame but doesn't rotate the vector
The second rotation rotates the vector . So, the two rotations are
completely different in nature. Carrying out the matrix multiplication,
equation [j] gives the same result as equations [c] and [d].

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 39
2.8 Rate of Change of a Vector, Angular Velocity
The previous section demonstrated that consecutive rotations
of coordinate frames by finite angles do not lend themselves
to representation as vectors. Hence, we do not have a vector to
differentiate in order to represent rotation rates. This section
explores ways of looking at rotation rates and defining the
angular velocity vector.
When looking at the rate of change of a quantity, we must
distinguish between derivatives taken in different reference
frames. For example, consider a moving vehicle and attach a
reference frame to the vehicle.
08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 40
When something inside the vehicle moves, say a passenger throws a
ball up and down, someone inside the vehicle sees the ball moving as
moving up and down only. An observer outside the vehicle sees the
ball moving with the vehicle as well as moving with respect to the
vehicle. We can Define rates of rotations and angular velocities in a
variety of ways. One is to use Infinitesimal values for the angles in a
body-fixed (or space-fixed) rotation sequence. This approach is
intuitive, but not mathematically sound. Two more rigorous
approaches are present here; one that makes use of column vector
notation and one that is based on Euler’s theorem. This section begins
with the definition of angular velocity for plane motion and then
considers the three-dimensional case.
08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 41
2.8.1 Angular Velocity for Plane Motion
Consider the two reference frames XYZ and xyz is section 2.3,
where XYZ coordinates are rotated by about the Z axis to arrive
at the xyz coordinate system. Let us consider XYZ to be a fixed
reference frame and evaluate the time derivative of the unit
vectors associated with the moving frame xyz. Differentiating
equation 2.2 leads to
(

(2.93)
And , as the z direction is the same as the Z direction,
which is fixed.
08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 42
The above relationships can be expressed in terms of the cross
product involving the angular velocity vector and by writing

Indeed, when dealing with a single rotation about a fixed axis,

the rotation can be represented as a vector,

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 43
 Y

Figure 2.26 Cross products of unit vectors in xy plane

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 44
Taking the derivative of this vector gives the angular velocity . The
cross products above are demonstrated in figure 2. 26.
The rate of change of a vector in the fixed and moving frames is
of interest. Consider first a vector that is fixed in the xyz frame.
This Vector can be any type of vector, such as position, velocity or
acceleration, linear or angular momentum, or angular velocity. To
an observer attached to the xyz frame, this vector does not
move. As the xyz coordinate system is moving, and observer in
the XYZ system sees the vector move. Because this vector is
fixed in the xyz frame, it's time derivatives becomes

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 45
The rate of change of a vector that is fixed in a moving frame is obtained
by the cross product between the angular velocity of the moving frame
and the vector itself. This relationship is valid for both two and three
dimensional motion. Next, we consider the case when the vector is not
fixed in the moving frame xyz but instead is changing with respect to the
moving frame. The derivativeare no longer zero and

Denoting by the local derivative or relative rate of change of , or the

rate of change of the vector in the moving frame, we can write the
above equation as

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 46
The total derivative of a vector comprise of two
components;
• the change of the vector as viewed from the moving
frame, plus
• the change due to the rotation of the moving frame.
The above equation is known as the transport theorem,
and it is valid for any vector observed from a moving
(rotating) frame. The name transport reflects the fact that
the derivative is being transported from one reference
frame to another. The transport theorem is geometrically
depicted in figure 2.27.
08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 47
 y

Figure 2.27 Derivative of a vector using transport theorem

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 48
2.8.2 Angular Velocity for Three-Dimensional Motion
As discussed earlier, for three dimensional rotation, the cumulative
effect of rotation sequences cannot be described as vectors, and
thus, no rotation vector exists for use to differentiate.
Instead, we define angular velocity for three dimensional motion by
means of a column vector formulation.
Begin with XYZ and xyz frame representations. The frame xyz that
rotates with respect to the XYZ frame. Consider a vector that is
represented in terms of the two reference frame as
(2.98)
Using the notation in section 2.3, the vector in column vector format
has the form
08.05.2023 (2.99) I.OZKOL 49
These two column vector representations are need to indicate
that the vector is expressed in two different reference frames.
The two vectors are related by
(2.100)
Where [R] is the 3x3 rotation Matrix. The form for [R] for plane
motion is given in equation (2.4).
Differentiate of the expression on the right in equation (2.100)
results in
(2.101)

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 50
The term is the derivative of the vector as we viewed from the
moving frame. The termis the derivative of the rotation vector,
and is the derivative of the vector viewed from the non-moving
(inertial) frame, that is, the total derivative. Introducing the
notation for the derivative of as
, the rate of change vector in terms of the XYZ and xyz frames
becomes and , respectively. This way, .

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 51
Note that while the relationship
(2.102)
is valid, the similar-looking counterpart for xyz frame is not:
(2.103)
This is because describes the rate of change vector in terms of the
coordinates of moving frame, while denotes the local derivative of as
viewed from the moving (rotating) frame. Introducing equation (2.101)
to equation (2.102) and left multiplying by [R] gives
(2.104)
let us examine the matrix product [R][]T more closely.

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 52
For the special case of plane motion (i.e. two dimensional)
(2.105)
Which is recognized as matrix representation of the angular
velocity in the xyz frame. It follows that the above equation is
yet another way to define the angular velocity vector, and we
can write,
(2.106)
which is the representation of the transport theorem in column
Vector notation.

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 53
Note that all of the terms in the above equation are expressed
in terms of parameters associated with the xyz frame.
The same procedure can be carried out for the rotation Matrix
in three dimensions. Regardless of the rotation sequence, we
can show that is a skew-symmetric matrix. (skew symmetric
matrix is a square matrix that is equal to the negative of its
transpose matrix). Consider the identity and differentiate it,
which yields
(2.107)

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 54
The two terms in the preceding equation are transposes of each other.
Indeed, denoting by , it follows that .
A matrix which, when added to its transpose, yields a null matrix must
be skew-symmetric (null matrix zero is a matrix having zero as each of
its elements).The matrix can be expressed as
(2.108)
Since is skew-symmetric, it can be recognized as the matrix
representation of a vector used when expressing a cross product, . We
refer to as the angular velocity vector.

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 55
 The vector is defined as the angular velocity vector of the
reference frame xyz with respect to the XYZ frame, and are the
instantaneous angular velocities or components of the angular
velocity vector. Thus, equation (2.104) is verified for three
dimensional motion. It must be emphasized that, for three
dimensional rotations, the angular velocity vector is a
defined quantity and that is not the derivative of
another vector. For this reason, the angular velocity vector is
referred to as nonholonomic, a term that is associated with
expressions that cannot be integrated to another expression. The
way we arrive at the angular velocity vector is completely different
from the derivation of the expression for translational velocity or
the rate of change of any defined vector.
08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 56
when using the A and B frame notation, the angular velocity of
the B frame with respect to the A frame is written as , where
the superscript denote the frames that are related. The
angular velocity of the A frame with respect to the B frame is
and . In addition, the derivative of a vector obtained in a
certain reference frame is denoted by a left superscript, such
as or. It follows that the transport theorem can be written as
(2.109)

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 57
08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 58
2.8.3 Other Definitions of Angular Velocity
The definition of angular velocity in the preceding subsection is not the
only way angular velocity can be defined. Two additional definitions are
presented here. Consider the frames A and B. The angular velocity of
frame B with respect to frame A is defined by
(2.110)
This definition can be verified by analyzing the expressions for the rates
of change of the unit vectors. While the above definition is more
abstract than the way we arrived at equation (2.108), it can be
substituted more easily into mathematical operations that involve
angular velocity. Yet another definition of angular velocity can be
obtained from Euler’s theorem and from the relationship between initial
and rotated vectors, as given in equation (2.84).
I.OZKOL 59
08.05.2023
Let us rewrite that equation by replacing by and by replacing by , which gives
(2.111)
A special application of equation (2.111) is for small rotations over small time
intervals. Indeed, as approach zero
(2.112)
which, when substituted into Equation (2.111), yields
2.113)
Because the infinitesimal rotation is taken about a single axis at that particular
instant, division of by dt yields the angular velocity expression in the form
(2.114)
So that

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 60
2.8.4 Additive Properties of Angular Velocity
Now that we have defined angular velocity as a vector, we can use the
additive properties of vectors and obtain the angular velocity of a
reference frame by adding up the angular velocities associated with the
rotations that lead to that reference frame. As an illustration, consider
an initial frame XYZ and rotate it by angle about the X axis to obtain an
X’Y’Z’ frame. The angular velocity of the X’Y’Z’ frame with respect to the
initial frame XYZ is recognized as simple angular velocity. Denote this
angular velocity by and express it as
(2.115)
Next, rotate the X’Y’Z’ frame about the Z’ axis by an angle obtain the
xyz frame. The angular velocity of the xyz frame with respect to the
intermediate frame is also simple angular velocity and it can be
expressed as
08.05.2023
I.OZKOL
61
The angular velocity of the xyz frame with respect to XYZ frame can then
be expressed as the sum of the two angular velocities

and we can use coordinate transformations to express the angular velocity

in terms of the unit vectors of XYZ, X’Y’Z’, or xyz. In general, it is more
convenient to express the angular velocity of a reference frame in
terms of the unit vectors of that frame. For the example above,

Since the transformation from X’Y’Z’ to xyz is a 3-rotation, and from

equation (2.74) we write , thus the expression for angular velocity
becomes

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 62
It is clear that cannot be expressed as the derivative of another vector, even
though the two components of the angular velocity, and , are differentiable
when evaluated individually. The situation does not change if is written in
terms of the fixed reference frame XYZ .When using the A and B frame notations, if
there is an additional reference frame, say, D, we begin with the A frame, rotate it
to obtain the D frame, and then rotate the D frame to obtain the B frame. The
angular velocities are related by

As discussed earlier, we usually attach the moving reference frame to the body.
The angular velocity of the reference frame and the angular velocity of the body
are then same. There are cases when it is preferable not to attach the moving
reference frame to the body. An important application is rotating axisymmetric
bodies. Consider the figure 2.28a and the elbow shaped pendulum that swings in
the xy (or XY) plane.

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 63
 Y Y
y
x
a)
b)
O X
G
x
Z θ y Ω X

Z, z

Figure 2.28 Spinning disk on a rotating elbow arb b) Coordinate axes xyz and XYZ

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 64
The z and the Z axes are along the same direction and the
relation between the xyz and XYZ coordinates is shown in figure
2.28b. The disc at the end of the pendulum is rotating with
angular velocity with respect to pendulum. We attach the xyz
frame on the elbow and write angular velocities of the disk and
the reference frame as

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 65
The angular velocity of the disk is expressed in terms of
coordinates of a reference frame not attached to the disk. It is
important to make the distinction between the angular velocity
of the reference frame and that of the body. From now on, the
angular velocity of the reference frame will be denoted by
We have defined angular velocity in a number of ways,
discussed what it is physically, and derived expressions for
derivatives of vectors in moving for a reference frames. What we
have not done is to come up with a general way to quantify
angular velocity as a function of rotational parameters.

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 66
Example 2.10
Z

b)
a) Z
z z
y
θ1

θ1
A Y y
Y
L1 y' θ1
Y
θ1
z'
θ2
X
B
Ω L2

θ2
C

Figure 2.29 a) Double link on a rotating column b) reference frame for the first link
08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 67
Obtain the angular velocity of the double link in figure 2.29
that is supported by a rotating column. The XYZ frame rotates
with the column and the angular velocity of the column is .
Attaching an xyz to frame the first link, and noting that the link
makes an angle with the vertical, the angular velocity of the
first link becomes

Where, so that the angular velocity of the first link becomes

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 68
To obtain the angular velocity of the second link, observed that
the angle is also measured from the vertical, so that it's value is
independent of the rotation of Link-1. The angular velocity of
the second link is found similarly, by replacing the number 1
with 2 equation [b], as well as the unit vectors with their primed
counterparts, with the result

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 69
2.9 Angular Acceleration and Second Derivatives
This section extends the developments of the previous section and obtains
expressions for angular acceleration and for other second derivatives.
2.9.1 Angular Acceleration
An important implication of the transport theorem is the calculation of the
derivative of angular velocity, known as angular acceleration. Denoted by ,
the angular acceleration is defined as

Note that the time derivative here is being taken in the inertial (non
moving) reference frame. We need to make the distinction between the
reference frame (or body) whose angular velocity is considered and the
coordinate axes used to express the angular velocity. Two scenarios are
possible
08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 70
1) The angular velocity components of the moving frame (or body) are
expressed in terms of the coordinates of the moving frame. This is the most
widely encountered case. The moving frame is attached to the body, as shown in
figure 2.30 Z

ωz

Y
ωy

ωx
X

Figure 2.30 Reference Frame Attached to body

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 71
Let us consider the moving xyz frame and express the angular velocity and angular
acceleration of the xyz frame as

Differentiate of the angular velocity results in

So that the components of the angular acceleration are time derivatives of the
components of the angular acceleration

Interestingly, we get the same result when the angular velocity is expressed in
terms of the coordinates of the inertial frame. Expressing as
, it follows that

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 72
2) The angular velocity components of the moving frame are not expressed in
terms of the coordinates of the moving frame. An example is shown in figure 2.28.
This approach is used primarily when dealing with rotating axisymmetric bodies
and in other cases when it is convenient to do so. Here, we need to distinguish
between the angular velocities of two reference frames. The notation denotes the
angular velocity of the reference frame used to express the vector that is
differentiated. The transport theorem for the angular acceleration becomes

Not that in this case . As an illustration, consider the elbow shaped rod and disc in
figure 2.28. The xyz frame is attached to the Elbow shaped, whose angular velocity
is . The disc rotates about the x-axis and the angular velocity of the disk with
respect to collar is . The angle of the disc can be written as

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 73
To obtain the angular acceleration, observe that the angular velocity of the
reference frame whose coordinates are used to express is the xyz frame, so that
and that this reference frames is not attached to the disk. Differentiating the
angular velocity term gives the angular acceleration as

Evaluate the first term results is

The cross product term vanishes because .

The second term becomes

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 74
So that the angular acceleration of the disk is

For the general case involving more than one reference frame, say, A, C, F, B:

The angular acceleration is obtained by differentiating each term individually, as

shown below

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 75
The above results are combined into

The transport theorem is the preferred approach for obtaining

derivatives of angular velocity, especially for complex problems
of angular acceleration, and is more adaptable to
implementation by digital computers.

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 76
Second Derivatives
Many times, it is necessary to take a second derivative or to take
the derivative of an expression in one reference frame that has
been obtained by differentiation in another frame. The transport
theorem is suitable to use in such cases. The following notation will
be used when dealing with a second derivative;
(2.135)
For a mixed derivative, application of the transport theorem gives

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 77
Note that when more than one derivative is taken in different
reference frames, changing the order of differentiation gives the
different results. This applies to differentiation with respect to time, as
well as to differentiation with respect to other variables. Be aware that a
vector maybe a function of a certain variable in one reference frame
and not in another. Let us next evaluate the second derivative of a vector .
Equation (2.109) gives the first derivative. Differentiating it gives
(2.137)
introducing Equation to the above equation and collecting terms give
(2.138)
or
(2.139)

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 78
A significant application of the above two equations will be discussed in
the next section. We end this section with an important reminder. It is
crucial that we be able to distinguish between the reference frame in
which a derivative is taken and the reference frame whose coordinates
are used to express a vector. Usually the two are the same; however,
there are cases when they are not, especially when dealing
axisymmetric bodies. When in doubt, we can use a straightforward,
but not as intuitive, way of calculating a derivative by differentiating
each term individually. The derivative of is
(2.140)
in which is the angular velocity of the coordinates, that is, the
coordinate system in which the vector is expressed. The same concept
also applies to second derivatives.
08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 79
Example 2-11
Consider the coordinate transformation of a system Shown in
Figure 2.31a. Begin with on inertial frame XYZ, rotate it by
about to obtain the frame and rotate this frame by about to
obtain the frame. The angular velocities associated with this
rotation sequence are
[a]
and the angular velocity of the xyz frame is

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 80
 Z

z, z͛ y'
y

b)
a) y θ2
θ1 x
y'
θ2
θ2
θ1 x'
Y

θ2
z', z
X, x͛

Figure 2.31 a) Two rotations of a coordinate system XYZ, b) the second rotation
viewed from a different vantage point
08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 81
Let us first find the angular acceleration by using the multiple frame
approach
[b]
in which denotes the angular velocity with which the frame is rotating.
Evaluating each term, and using the xyz coordinates to express , and noting
from figure 2.31b that and results in

[c]
Introduction of equation into Equation [b] leads to
[d]

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 82
Alternatively, we can obtain the angular acceleration by writing the
angular velocity in terms of the xyz coordinates and differentiate.
Express as
[e]
and the individual components of the angular velocity are
[f]
The angular acceleration components are obtained by direct
differentiation of the angular velocity components
[g]
Which, of course, is the same result as Equation [d]. For comparison
purposes, let us obtain the angular acceleration in terms of the
coordinates. The angular velocities are
08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 83
Using Equation , the angular acceleration terms are obtained as

we can also use the complete expression for and differentiate it

to find the angular acceleration. Recall that the angular
velocities of the frame is now being expressed in terms of the
coordinates, so that

[i]
which is the same result as Equation [h]

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 84
2.10 Relative Motion
This section develops expressions for relative velocity and
relative acceleration. The transport theorem is applied to
relate the motions of two points in moving reference
frames.
Consider a rigid body that is undergoing translation and
rotation. We can analyze the motion by attaching a
moving reference frame to the body. The angular velocity
and angular acceleration of the frame then become the
angular velocity and acceleration of the body. Two points,
and , lie on the bod (Fiqure 2.32)
08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 85
 y
z
Z x
P

Y
O

Figure 2.32 Two point on a body

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 86
Point is fixed on the body and point may or may
not move with respect to body (hence, relative to
the reference frame). Also consider a nonmoving
(inertial) coordinate system . The angular velocity
and angular acceleration of the body are denoted
by and respectively. The positions of points and
related by
(2.141)

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 87
Where and are measured from a fixed reference point
and is the relative position vector. This vector is similar to
the vector used in Equation and in Equation . Although
we can substitute these equations directly into the
relative velocity and relative acceleration expressions, it is
instructive to repeat the derivation in terms of .
Differentiation of Equation (2.141) leads to relative
velocity equation
(2.142)

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 88
The time derivative of the position vector is obtained by direct
differentiation of (or by measurement from the fixed reference point). The
time derivative of the relative position term can be obtained by using the
transport theorem, as the vector moves with respect to the reference frame.
Applying yields

The first term on the right, , is the velocity viewed by an observer sitting (or a
measuring device located) on the body. This term vanishes if point is fixed
on the body. The second term, , is the velocity of point with respect to due
to the rotation of the reference frame. The relative velocity expression thus
becomes
(2.144)
(2.143)
08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 89
The relative acceleration equation is obtained by differentiating
Equation . Differentiating the first term on the right hand side
gives , as is measured from a fixed point and so is its time
derivative. Differentiation of the second term by means of the
transport theorem results in
(2.145)
and differentiating the third term gives
(2.146)

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 90
Combining the above equations, we get
(2.147)
The term is due to the angular acceleration of the rotating frame, while
is the centripetal acceleration. For the special case of plane motion,
the centripetal acceleration takes the form
(2.148)

The term is the Coriolis acceleration.

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 91
If point does not move with respect to the body (that is, with
respect to the moving frame), then the velocity and
acceleration of observed from the body are zero,
, , and the relative acceleration expression reduces to
(2.149)
When solving relative motion problem on a plane, we can use
a scaler approach to add the vectors involved by means of
velocity polygons and we express the relative velocity
relationship as sketch.

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 92
Example
Consider the robotic arm in Figure 2.33a mounted on a rotating
shaft. The shaft is rotating with a constant angular velocity of .
The angle that the robotic arm makes with the shaft is varying
according to relationship
, with
With a motion similar to that of an automobile antenna, a
second arm extends from the outer end of the arm according to
the relationship

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 93
 Ω
h3

a) b)

Ω
b3

O h2
g
B
P
B P
h1 b2 𝑏2

Figure 2.33 a) Robatic Arm on a rotating shaft, b) coordinate frames

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 94
Find the angular velocity and angular acceleration of the rod, as well as
the acceleration of the tip of the extending arm, at time seconds
This problem can be solved using a variety of approaches. In one
approach, two relative frames are used, one attached to the shaft frame
(H frame, with axes ) and rotating with , the other (B frame) attached to
the arm and rotating with with respect to shaft, as shown in Figure
2.33b. In the second approach, we deal with - single frame attached to
the robotic arm. For this problem, it is more convenient to use the single
frame approach. The following information is available:

[a]

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 95
As the geometry and positions of the linkages are known, the
velocity analysis can be conducted. The pin joint to which the
arm is connected is denoted by 0. The angular velocities of the
reference frames are
[b]
where . The angular velocity of the arm is obtained by adding
the individual angular velocities and has the form
[c]

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 96
The relative velocity expression between point and is
[d]
in which and
[e]
carrying out the cross product in Equation [d] gives
[f]
Adding Equations and gives the velocity of as
[g]

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 97
Next, consider the acceleration and write
[h]
where and . The angular acceleration is obtained by applying the transport
theorem to the angular velocity

[i]
The individual terms are evaluated next and they result in

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 98
Adding the respective terms, the acceleration is obtained as

[k]

Which can be further simplified.

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 99
Instantaneous Center Of Zero Velocity
An important property of rigid bodies undergoing plane motion
is that of an instant center. The instant center is a powerful
visual tool that gives valuable insight regarding the nature of the
motion. It can be used as an analysis as well as a design tool. At
any instant of motion, there exists an axis perpendicular to the
plane of motion, called the instantaneous axis of zero velocity,
such that the body can be viewed as rotating about that axis at
that instant. The intersection of this axis and the plane of
motion is called the instantaneous center of zero velocity, or
instant center. In general, the instant center of a body is located
by visual inspection.
08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 100
To establish the location of the instant center, we need to
know velocity of two points on the body. If the velocities are
not in the same direction, we draw two lines, beginning at the
points at which the velocities are known and perpendicular to
the velocities. Their intersection is the instant Center. This is
the most commonly encountered case. If the velocities of the
two points are in the same direction, we again draw two lines;
one joining the points at which the velocities are known and
other joining the tips of the velocity vectors drawn to scale.
Their intersection is the instant center. Figure shows these
common ways of locating an instant center. ıc
08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 101
 ıc IC
A
. vA
. vB
. B
A B . vB

vA
IC
ıc
Figure 2.34 Locating Center

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 102

While the instant center has zero velocity, its location at every instant
is different, and its acceleration is not zero. Hence, the value of
instant center analysis diminishes for kinetic analysis.
(in some type of vehicle suspension systems, sometimes one can make
the assumption that the instant center remains stationary for a short
time period)
The definition of instant center here is for a single body, it can easily be
extended to multiply-body case. This expanded definition is widely
used for mechanism and vehicle suspension system analysis.

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 103

Example 2.13
A rod of length is sliding against two surfaces that are not
perpendicular to each other, as shown in Figure 2.35a. At
the instant shown, the rod makes an angle of 45° with the
horizontal. Also, point is moving to the right with speed .
Find the instantaneous center of zero velocity and use it
to calculate the velocity of point .

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 104

 C
ω

a) b)

30 D
A A
45
15 15

60° B 60°
45 45 B
vB

08.05.2023
Figure 2.35 a) Sliding Rod, b) Geometry and instant center
I.OZKOL 105
Since points A and B are sliding on the surfaces with which they
are in contact, the instant center can be found by drawing
perpendicular lines to the surfaces, as shown in Figure 2.35b. The
coordinates of the instant center can be found by geometry. The
following relations can be written
[a]
From which we conclude that
[b]
So that
[c]

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 106

The angular velocity of the rodis found from
[d]
And the velocity of A becomes
[e]

08.05.2023 I.OZKOL 107