Topic 1:

Major Sociological Theories of

Education

主題一 :
主要的教育社會學理論
 What is sociology? 什麼是社會學？

• Sociology studies group life. One of the social institutions

that makes up society is education. 社會學為研究群體生
活。教育是組成社會的社會機構之一。
• Sociologists study structures and organizations of social
systems, including education, family, religion, economics,
politics, and health. Social institutions, such as education,
constitute the major structural components of any society .
社會學家研究社會系統的結構和組織，包括教育、 家庭、
宗教、 經濟、 政治、 和健康。社會機構，如教育 ,
組成了任何社會中主要的結構要素。

(From Ballantine & Spade, 2008, p.xii; Ballantine & Hammack, 2012, p.25)
What is sociology of education?
教育社會學是什麼？
 Perspectives and theories
觀點和理論
• Sociologists start with perspectives or theories that guide their
search for knowledge, and use the scientific method as they
analyze data.
社會學家從指引他們尋求的知識觀點或理論著手，並在他們
分析資料時運用科學的方法
• Theories are attempts to explain, generalize, and predict the
patterns and practices of educational systems.
理論乃解釋、歸納、並預測教育系統的模式和實踐的嘗試

(From Ballantine & Spade, 2008, p.1)

 Perspectives and theories (Cont’d)
觀點和理論 ( 續 )
• Theories guide research and policy formation in the sociology of
education and provide logical explanations for why things happens
as they do, helping to explain, predict, and generalize about
questions related to schools.
理論引導教育社會學研究和政策的形成並提供了事情為什麼發
生的邏輯解釋，有助於解釋、 預測和歸納學校相關的問題
• Different theoretical approaches give you different ways of
thinking about educational systems.
不同的理論切入提供你關於教育系統的不同思維方向
• It is from the theories and the resulting research that sociologists
of education come to understand educational system.
教育社會學家從理論和研究結果來瞭解教育系統

(From Ballantine & Spade, 2008, p.1)

 Research methods in sociology of
education 教育社會學的研究方法
• Sociological methods used to study educational
systems include observations, surveys, and the use of
existing data such as test scores, controlled laboratory
experiments, and case studies. 用於研究教育系統的
社會學方法包括了觀察、調查、以及使用現有數據，
如測試分數、實驗室對照實驗和案例研究。
• Any of these methods, or a combination of methods,
can be used-depending on the theory and level of
analysis used-to collect data to help answer questions
within a theoretical framework. 取决於理論和分析層
面可以任意使用這些方法或方法的組合來收集數據，
以便於回答理論框架下的問題。
(From Ballantine & Hammack, 2012, p.26)
Micro-Level and Macro-Level
Theories of Education
教育微觀層面和宏觀層面的
理論
 Micro-level theories of education
教育微觀層面的理論
• Micro-level explanations focus on the individual, such as how
teachers, administrators, students, parents, or other perceive
and respond to educational settings and how their responses
shape interactions (Ballantine & Spade, 2008, p.6).
微觀層面的解釋著重於個體如教師、行政人員、 學生、 家
長或其他人如何理解和回應教育環境和他們的反應是如何形
成互動
• Qualitative research studies typically focus on interpersonal
behavior and interaction at the micro-level of analysis rather
than society as a whole to understand how individuals use
symbols to construct the reality of their daily lives (Ballantine &
Spade, 2008, p.2).
定性研究通常著重在非整體社會的微觀層面中人際行為和互
動的分析，進而了解個人如何使用符號來建構他們日常生活
的寫實
 Micro-level theories of education (Cont’d) 教育微觀
層面的理論 ( 續 )
• This method of studying education involves listening to people and
using their realities to understand larger educational issues.
這種研究教育的方法涉及傾聽人們及運用他們的實際情況來理
解更大教育問題
• By studying the way participants in the process of schooling
construct their realities, researchers can decode the meaning of
education for participants.
通過研究參與者在學校教育過程中建構自己的實際情況，研
究者可以為參與者解讀教育的意義

(From Ballantine & Spade, 2008, p.2)

 Macro-level theories of education
教育宏觀層面的理論
• Macro-level explanations, on the other hand, focus on the
institution of education and how schools fit into the larger social
structure (Ballantine & Spade, 2008, p.6).
宏觀層面上的解釋，另一方面，重點放在教育機構及學校如
何適應更大的社會結構
• Macro-level explanations focus on larger societal and cultural
system. As such, schools as organizations, the processes of
teaching and learning, and the interactions within schools and
classrooms are viewed as part of larger social contexts (Ballantine
& Spade, 2008, p.9).
宏觀的解釋著重於更大的社會和文化系統。因此，學校乃組
織，教學與學習的步驟和在學校及教室內的互動，被視為大社
會背景中的一部分
Understanding education through sociological theory
透過社會學理論來理解教育

•Micro-level theories of education: 教育微觀層面的理論

1) Symbolic interaction theory (including labeling theory)
符號互動理論（包括標籤理論）
2)Rational Choice Theory 理性選擇理論

•Macro-level theories of education: 教育宏觀層面的理論

1) Functional Theory 功能理論
2)Conflict theory 衝突理論

(Ballantine & Spade, 2008, pp.6-17).

 Symbolic interaction theory 符號互動理論
• Symbols are the concepts or ideas that we use to frame our
interactions. These concepts can be expressed by words or
gestures; they define reality and affect our sense of self and the
social hierarchies which surround us. 符號是我們使用於建構互動
的概念或想法。這些概念可表示為文字或動作 ；他們解釋了現
實並影響著我們的自我意識和圍繞在我們身邊的社會階層
• Symbols define students’ and teachers’ existences- specifying who
is “bright,” “cooperative,” “trouble,” “good,” and so forth. Symbols
define what experiences are “good,” or “bad.” In other words,
symbols create our social reality. 。符號定義了教師與學生的經
驗─ 說明誰是”聰明的” ,” 合作的” ,” 麻煩的” ,” 好
的 ,” 等等。符號定義了哪些經驗是“好的”或“壞的”。換
句話說，符號創造我們的社會現實。
• Those who “win” are more likely to have access to symbolic
resources, including higher class-based language patterns and social
experiences; they are valued and given special privileges in the
classroom or school. “ 贏”的那些人更可能有機會接近象徴性
的資源，包括較高階層的語言模式和社會經驗 ; 他們在教室或
學校中都受到重視和給予特權

(From Ballantine & Spade, 2008, pp.6-7).

 Symbolic interaction theory (Cont’d)
符號互動理論 ( 續 )
• Students look to other, particularly their teachers, to understand
their “place” in this culture. Common norms evolve to guide
behavior. Students learn through interaction how they are different
from others based on individual experience, social class, and status.
學生藉著其他人，特別是他們的老師，來瞭解他們在這種文化
中的地位。共同規範演變成行為指導。學生根據個人經驗、社會
階級和地位通過互動來學習他們是如何與其他人不同
• Education using this approach are likely to focus on students’
attitudes, values, and achievements, such as their motivations to do
well in school; students’ self-concepts; and how interactions
between peers, students, teachers, and principals are shaped by the
social class backgrounds of all participants.
使用這種方法的教育有可能較著重學生的態度、 價值觀和成就，
例如他們在學校表現好的動機；學生的自我概念 ；同儕 、學生、
教師和校長之間的互動是如何因參與者的社會階級背景塑造而成
(From Ballantine & Spade, 2008, p.7)
 Labeling theory
標籤理論
• Labeling theory is a theoretical approach stemming from the
symbolic interactions perspective.
標籤理論是從符號互動觀點所衍生的一種理論
• Using labeling theory we can better understand how teacher
expectations based students’ race, class, ethnic background,
gender, religion, or other characteristics affect students’ self-
perceptions and achievement levels.
我們可以藉著使用標籤理論更加明白老師的期望是如何根
據學生的種族、階級、族裔背景、性別、宗教或其他特徵
來影響學生的自我認知和成績程度
• The powerful interactions between labelers and labeled have
been studies in schools.
學校中標籤者與被標籤者之間的重要相互影響已有研究

(From Ballantine & Spade, 2008, p.7)

 Labeling theory (Cont’d)
標籤理論 ( 續 )
• The processes of labeling by assigning students in academic/non-academic
tracks and ability groups serve to reproduce inequalities in society. Low-income
students are often placed in low-ability groups, which can become a “life
sentenced” affecting achievement and future opportunities. Interactions
between participants in the school and classroom give insight into the labeling
process.
以分配學生在學術 / 非學術分軌和能力分組的標籤過程重現社會不平等現
象。低收入家庭的學生往往是安排在低能力組，成為一個影響成就和未來
的機會的“無期徒刑之判決” 。標籤過程能從學校和教室參與者之間的互
動來洞悉。
• In addition to social class, gender is reinforced in social interactions in the
classroom as shown in research finding indicating that girls struggle more with
self-esteem, especially in middle school, than do boys (AAUP, 2001).
研究結果顯示除了社會階層，教室裡的社會互動亦增強了性別化，女孩比
男孩更需為自尊而努力，特別是在中學裡。

(From Ballantine & Spade, 2008, p.8)

 Rational Choice Theory
理性選擇理論
• Rational choice theory assumes that there are costs and rewards involved in
our individual decisions within the classroom and/or school.
理性選擇理論認為教室和 / 或學校內我們個人的決定包含代價與獎勵
• According to rational choice theory, if benefits outweigh costs, the individual
is likely to make the decision to act in order to continue receiving benefits. If
costs outweigh benefits, the individual will seek other courses of action. In
education, the question is how weighing of costs and benefits influence
decisions about educational choices by students, teachers, and
administrators in the conduct of school experiences.
根據理性選擇理論，如果利益大於代價，個人有可能想繼續得利而做出
採取行動的決定。如果代價超過了利益，個人將尋求其他的行動。在教
育上，學生、教師及行政人員在學校經驗的行為裡所做出相關教育選擇
的決定亦受如何權衡代價和利益問題的影響。

(From Ballantine & Spade, 2008, p.8)

 Rational Choice Theory (Cont’d)
理性選擇理論 ( 續 )
• Students who consider dropping out of school likely go through
some analysis, comparing benefits of staying in school such as
ability to get a better job, versus costs to themselves.
考慮輟學的學生有可能是經過一些分析，比較留在學校
譬如能獲得較好工作能力的利益，與他們自己花費相比
• how individuals evaluate the benefits and costs at a given
moment in making what theorists describe as rational choice.
個人如何評估在某個時刻以利益和成本做出理論家所謂的理性
選擇
• Rational choice theory can also applied to the issue of teacher
retention.
理性選擇理論亦可應用在教師去留的問題上

(From Ballantine & Spade, 2008, p.8)

Functional Theory
功能理論
 The main ideas of functional theory
功能理論的主要思想
•Functional theory helps us understand how education systems
work and what purpose education serves in societies.
功能理論助於我們瞭解教育系統如何運作及教育在社會上
服務的目的是什麼
•According to Durkheim, a major role of education in society
was to create unity by providing a common moral code
necessary for social cohesion.
根據涂爾幹，教育在社會裡的主要角色是為凝聚社會來提
供一個共同的道德準則而統一設定的
•Functionalists also argue that the passing on knowledge and
behaviors is a primary function of schools, one necessary to
maintain order and fill needed positions in society.
功能理論家還認為傳遞知識和行為是學校的主要功能，以
維持秩序和填補社會中必需的位置

(From Ballantine & Spade, 2008, p.9).

 The main ideas of functional theory (Cont’d) 功能
理論的主要思想 ( 續 )
•Following Durkheim, sociologists see the transmission of moral and
occupational education, discipline, and values as necessary for the
survival of society. Thus, schools play a very important role in
carrying out the functions that education provides for the larger
society.
繼涂爾幹後，社會學家視道德和職業教育、 紀律、 和價值的傳
輸是社會的生存所必需的。因此，學校在執行為大社會提供教育
的功能上扮演非常重要的角色
•This functionalist view see achievement in schools as based on
merit, not one’s status. Thus, the function of education is to support
capitalism, allowing those with most merit to achieve and fill higher-
level positions in society.
這種功能理論家的觀點認為學校成就為價值的根本，而非個人的
地位。因此，教育的功能是維持資本主義，讓取得最多成就的人
來填補社會中高位
(From Ballantine & Spade, 2008, pp. 9-10)
 The major functions that education serves in
societies
教育服務社會的主要功能
• Socialization: teaching children to be productive members of
society.
社會化 : 教孩子成為對社會具生產力的成員
• School socialization enhances personal and social
development.
學校社會化增進個人和社會的發展
• Selection and training of individuals for positions in society.  
挑選和訓練每個人在社會中的位置
• Promoting change and Innovation.
促進變革和創新
(From Ballantine & Spade, 2008, pp. 10-11)
 The major functions that education serves in
societies (Cont’d)
教育服務社會的主要功能 ( 續 )

• Latent functions of education: students experience latent functions-

unintended, unorganized, informal consequences of the educational
process. (e.g. Education helps students begin the move toward
independence, and provides experiences in large, impersonal secondary
groups [Ballantine & Roberts, 2007]). 。
潛在的教育功能 : 學生體驗潛在的功能 - 意想不到的、無
次序的、非正式的教育結果。 ( 例如教育有助於學生開始
走向獨立，及提供在大的、非個人的次級團體經驗 ) 。

(From Ballantine & Spade, 2008, p.11)

Conflict Theory
衝突理論
 Development of conflict theory
衝突理論的發展
• Karl Marx [1818-1883]: schools create and maintain inequality by
teaching students an ideology that serve the interests of the rich
and instills in students a sense of “false consciousness.”
卡爾 · 馬克思 [1818-1883 年 ] ：學校用為富人利益服務及
逐漸灌輸學生”虛假意識”觀念的一種意識形態來教導學生進
而製造和維持不平等
• “False consciousness”: students in schools learn to accept the myth
of meritocracy, that all have an equal chance of achieving. Those
who buy into this ideology and fail often believe that their failure is
due to their own shortcomings and lack of ability. Students learn to
internalize their own lower position in society and their lowly fate,
thus accepting a “false consciousness” and legitimizing the wealth
and power of capitalists.
“ 虛假意識”：學生在學校學習接受英才教育的神話，人人都
有平等的機會取得成就。那些相信這種意識形態卻失敗的人常
常認為他們的失敗都是因為他們自己的缺點和無能所造成的。
學生學習把他們自己在社會上的低地位及卑微命運藏在心底，
因此接受了“虛假意識”及將資本家的財富和權力合法化。
(From Ballantine & Spade, 2008, p.12)
 Development of conflict theory (Cont’d)
衝突理論的發展 ( 續 )
• Marx Weber [1864-1920]: inequalities and potential conflict were
sustained in different distributions of status (prestige), power (ability to
control others), and class (economic relations).
馬克斯 · 韋伯 [1864-1920 年 ] ：不平等及可能的衝突是在地
位 ( 名譽 ) 、權力 ( 控制他人的能力 ) 和社會階級 ( 經濟關係）的
不同分配下持續下去。
• “Credentialism” of Randall Collins (1979): the increased requirements for
higher-level positions used by more advantaged individuals to further
their status. The rapid expansion of educational qualifications, faster than
the number of jobs, had led to “credential inflation,” yet what the school
curriculum teaches in not necessary for most jobs. The result is the
credentials required for jobs keep increasing.
蘭德爾 · 柯林斯的”文憑主義” (1979 年 ): 具較多優勢的個人
以增加高職位的要求條件來助長自己的地位。學歷資格的快速膨脹，
已超過工作職位的數量，導致”文憑通脹” ，而學校課程教的卻不
一定是為多數工作職位的需要。其結果只是造成工作職位所需的文憑
不斷升高。
(From Ballantine & Spade, 2008, pp.12-13)
 The main ideas of conflict theory
衝突理論的主要思想
• Conflict theory challenges the functionalist assumptions that schools are
ideologically and politically neutral and that school operate based upon
meritocracy, with each child able to achieve to the highest level of his or
her own ability.
衝突理論質疑功能理論所謂學校是意識形態及政治上中立和學校乃基
於英才教育讓每一個孩子都能以自己能力達到最高層的假設
• Conflict theorists studying education systems point out that difference in
the achievement of students are not based on their ability or intelligence;
rather, schools reflect the needs of the powerful, dominant groups in
society and serve to perpetuate a capitalistic system. 。
學習學校系統的衝突理論家指出學生成就上的不同並不是基於他們的
能力或智力； 倒不如說學校是反映出社會上權勢團體的需求和為永
續資本主義制度的服務

(From Ballantine & Spade, 2008, pp.12-13)

 The main ideas of conflict theory (Cont’d)
衝突理論的主要思想 ( 續 )

• They argue that schools reproduce capitalist society through

the student selection and allocation processes that create
hierarchies within societies, socializing students into these
hierarchies of power and domination, and legitimizing the
hierarchies by claiming they are based on merit.
他們認為學校藉由挑選學生和分配過程中造成社會的等
級制度而複製了資本主義社會，使學生適於權勢等級制度
的社會生活，宣稱等級制度乃基於他們優異程度來將其合
法化

(From Ballantine & Spade, 2008, p.13)

 Contemporary perspectives in the
sociology of education 教育社會學中的當
代觀點
• Recent perspectives include critical theory, the
“new” sociology of education, modernism and
postmodernism, and feminist theory. 近代觀點
包括批判理論、“新的”教育社會學、現代主
義和後現代主義、以及女權主義理論。
• These theories attempt to move educational
theory to be more inclusive of all race, class and
gender groups. 這些理論嘗試將教育理論對所
有的種族、階級和性別群體變的更具包容性。
(From Ballantine & Hammack, 2012, p.26)
 Reference

Ballantine, J. H., & Hammack, F. M. (2012). The sociology of

education: A systematic analysis. Upper Saddle River, N.J:
Pearson Education.
Ballantine, J. H., & Spade, J. Z. (Eds.). (2008). Schools and Society:
A Sociological Approach to Education (3rd ed.).: Pine Forge
Press.
 Case #1 Discussion Questions
個案 1 討論問題
1. Based on news in Case #1, what are the purposes of
education in Macau? 根據新聞個案 1 中，澳門教育
的目的是什麼？
2. According to major sociological theories of education,
which theories explain the functions of Macau’s
education better? Why? 根據主要的教育社會學理論，
哪些理論較適於解釋澳門教育的功能？為什麼 ?
3. According to major sociological theories of education, how
can education be improved in order to fulfill the needs of
society in Macau? 根據主要的教育社會學理論，教育
要如何提升以滿足澳門社會的需求嗎？
 Related empirical studies 相關實證研究

• Stevenson, D. L., Baker D. P. (1992). Shadow education and

allocation in formal schooling: Transition to university in
Japan. American Journal of Sociology, 97(6), 1639-1657.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2781551
• Bray, M., Zhan, S., Lykins, C., Wang, D., Kwo, O. (2014).
Differentiated demand for private supplementary tutoring:
Patterns and implications in Hong Kong secondary education.
Economic of Education Review, 38, 24-37.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S02727757
13001350