The Role of Educational Systems in the Link Between Formative Assessment and

Motivation
Author(s): Susan Bobbitt Nolen
Source: Theory Into Practice , Fall 2011, Vol. 50, No. 4, Engaging Students in Learning:
A Special Issue Dedicated to Jere Brophy (Fall 2011), pp. 319-326
Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd.

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Theory Into Practice , 50:319-326, 201 1 Roiltl6ClC|6
Copyright © The College of Education and Human Ecology, The Ohio State University g v
ISSN: 0040-5841 print/ 1543-0421 online
DOI: 10.1080/00405841.201 1.607399

Susan Bobbitt Nolen

The Role of Educational Systems

in the Link Between Formative
Assessment and Motivation

assessment and grading policies, departmental

Formative assessment has been widely promoted
as a means to support student learning andassessment norms, school district structures, and
external assessment mandates. Finally, the rec-
motivation. This practice has potential for com-
municating to students the value of what they ommendation of Black, Harrison, Lee, Marshall,
are learning, both in the classroom and beyondand Wiliam (2004) are examined in light of these
issues.
(Brophy, 2008). To make good on those promises ,
however, requires an understanding of the con-
nections between formative assessment practices
and the realities of the social systems in which
they are employed. In this article , I consider
the importance of classroom systems, including
the purposes of assessments, their function in OVER cles have THEstressed
cles have stressedtheLAST
powerDECADE, the power numerous of formative arti-
of formative
assessment
the classroom social structure (including issues with feedback for supporting student
of power, identity, and competing values), and achievement and motivation. Since Black and
teachers' multiple concerns with effects on Wiliam's (1998) influential article in Phi Delta
stu-
dent learning and motivation. I also address Kappan
the , teachers and administrators have been
increasingly
role of conflicts between the practice of formative urged to provide students with feed-
back about their progress toward learning targets
(see, for example, Brookhart, Moss, & Long,
Susan Bobbitt Nolen is a professor of educational
2008; Cauley & McMillan, 2009; Heritage, 2007;
psychology at the University of Washington.
Nicol & Macfarlane-Dick, 2006; Wiliam, 2006).
Correspondence should be addressed to Dr. Susan
In controlled studies, feedback has been shown
Bobbitt Nolen, Educational Psychology, 322 Miller
to support motivation and achievement if it pro-
Hall, Box 353600, University of Washington, Seattle,
WA 98195. E-mail: sunolen@uw.edu vides specific information about the work related

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Engaging Students in Learning

to standards or learning progressions, suggests have decided is worth learning: They are state-
strategies for improvement, and is focused on ments of collected value. They also embody the
learning and improvement rather than grades or power relationships, assumptions about students
social comparison. It has the potential to help and families, and beliefs about learning of that
students learn how and why learning particular activity system. To support student learning, ed-
skills or concepts is valuable (Brophy, 1999, ucators and their allies need to communicate
2008). But formative assessment and feedback clearly, provide opportunities to learn what is
are embedded in social systems (classrooms, valued, and use assessments and assessment data
schools, neighborhoods) in ways that complicate to make valid decisions about who has learned
the understanding of their effects in the wild (Ay- what, and what to do next. To succeed, students
ala et al., 2008; Black, Harrison, Lee, Marshall, must interpret these communications to identify
& Wiliam, 2004; Eraut, 2006; Sadler, 1989). the expectations, either endorse the embodied
Calls for teacher preparation programs to values or acknowledge the need to comply with
teach novices how to use formative assessment those in power, and avail themselves of opportu-
practices generally portray assessment decisionsnities to learn to perform those expectations.
as choices made by individual teachers, both in A lot of things have to go right in the
terms of how to assess and how to interpret andsystem just described. When students become
discouraged, disinterested, and disengaged, we
use assessment data. In reality, these decisions
are made in the complex, multilayered social con-often seek answers in some characteristic of the
texts of education. A teacher's assessment prac-students themselves. They are not sufficiently
tice is negotiated, overtly or tacitly, with students,mastery-oriented. They lack ability. They (or
their families) do not value education. But assum-
parents, colleagues, administrators, state govern-
ments, and national curriculum and assessmenting that the problem lies in the students is like
bodies in programs such as Advanced Placementassuming that any engine malfunction must be a
or the International Baccalaureate (Nolen, Horn,valve problem: Just because these reasons could
Ward, & Childers, 2011). A group of geometry disrupt learning and engagement does not mean
teachers consults with their colleagues who teachthat they are the root cause. Likewise, problems
math analysis about which topics are essential toin a system require a systemic view that takes
teach and assess, and which are not. The primary into account the relationships among the moving
teachers in an elementary school push to change parts. In this article, I argue that we need to better
the report card form to one that focuses on devel-understand the connections between teachers'
assessment practices and students' motivation
opmental progression of skill, rather than general
terms such as satisfactory. A novice teacher and engagement in terms of the social systems
wonders if using project-based approaches toin which they exist.
teaching and assessment will disadvantage his
students when they get to the more traditional
teachers in the next grade level, or when they Motivation and Assessment in
take the state's standardized test in the spring. Classroom Systems
Parents argue for extra credit to be given, or test
retakes, or more transparent standards. Like other communications, assessment doc-
Assessment tools and artifacts such as gradinguments (e.g., project directions, rubrics, tests)
policies, study guides, scoring rubrics, and the and feedback serve multiple purposes and may
like make the system's values concrete. Goodbe interpreted differently by different people.
ones specify what teachers and administrators Formative assessment and feedback, in particu-
want students to learn, along with the standardslar, are not only meant to communicate values
for good work. The content, standards, and howand standards, but also to show students how
they are assessed all reflect, in part, what the their work measures up to those standards: the
gap between current and desired performance.
teacher, department, school, district, and/or state

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Nolen Linking Formative Assessment and Motivation

Pry or and Torrance (1997) suggested that similar
feedback might have different effects on student
engagement, depending on the relationships be-
tween student and teacher, among peers, and be-
tween students and parents. Telling a student that
they have tried hard might be perceived as praise
for compliance by one child, as an indicator
of low ability by another, or as encouragement
to keep working by a third, depending on the
plausible that this distinction would influence
students' perceptions of the risk involved in an-
swering questions and, thus, their engagement. In
a related longitudinal survey study, Nolen (2003)
found that high school students' perceptions of
their teachers' focus on learning, rather than rela-
tive performance or covering content and moving
on, predicted their achievement and motivation in
science.

student's goals, the importance or meaning of In fact, teachers balance multiple purposes for
the task in the social context, and the kinds assessing and providing feedback to students. In
of feedback given at other times or to other addition to providing information useful to stu-
children (Thorkildsen, Nolen, & Fournier, 1994; dents in self-assessment, revision, or goal-setting,
Weinstein, 1989). teachers are often concerned with affective and
Characteristics of the immediate social setting emotional issues of students' self-esteem, con-
in which the feedback was delivered are also fidence, and motivation to learn. Teachers may
important. Classrooms are social systems withinbelieve that providing specific feedback about
weaknesses in student work conflicts with these
which teacher and students have particular iden-
goals. Teachers may focus on effort or sur-
tities, relationships, and histories of interaction.
Students may have identities within the face
classcharacteristics of work such as neatness
as high or low achievers, fast kids or or slowcompletion to have something positive to
kids, bullies, teachers' pets, rebel leaders, orbut, more important, may avoid providing
say,
class clowns, and feedback for work or behavior
substantive feedback about the quality of work
or level of understanding (Pryor & Torrance,
may well be read in terms of those identities.
1997; Tiknaz & Sutton, 2006). This attempt to
The teacher's reputation for providing assessment
information and other feedback for particularspare the feelings of less successful children may
have
purposes (e.g., to support learning, to control be- the unintended effect of denying them the
havior, to punish, to encourage) might also opportunity
play to learn or improve. Critical feed-
back can be constructed in terms that encourage
a role in interpretation. Assessment information
students to progress while providing the needed
and other feedback may be understood differently
information about work quality and potential
depending on whether they are delivered publicly
strategies (Butler, 1987; Taylor & Nolen, 2008;
or privately. For example, providing feedback
Thorkildsen et al., 1994; Wilson & Wineburg,
on work in front of peers positions the student
1993). Specific suggestions about how students
in particular ways (e.g., as competent, as disen-
might improve work, aimed at achievable but
gaged, as teacher's favorite) which may, in turn,
affect subsequent engagement by both studentschallenging next steps, and phrased in ways that
and peers. suggest teachers' confidence in students' ability
The function of assessment and feedback to improve, can support student engagement and
in the classroom system is also relevant learning.
when
examining their relationship to student engage- Even when teacher feedback on the results of
ment. How is assessment used, by whom,formativeand assessment is clear, encouraging, and
for what purpose? There is some evidence
specific, it may still not have the desired effect on
that even elementary students are sensitivestudent
to engagement and learning (Sadler, 1989),
teachers' purposes. For example, Torrance however.
and Two primary purposes for formative
assessment have been proposed, although they
Pry or (2001) described students' interpretations
of teacher questioning, a form of both assess-
are not always clearly separated in the literature:
ment and feedback, as distinguishing between(a) providing information about student learning
helping questions and testing questions. It seems
that can help teachers plan or modify instruction,

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Engaging Students in Learning

and (b) providing information that can be used,
via oral or written feedback, to help students
learn and improve their performance. Both of
these functions can have important effects on
student engagement. When teachers use forma-
tive assessment to plan or modify instruction,
they are striving to improve the fit between what
students need and what they get. To the extent
that this leads to moderate levels of challenge in
first test score with the second, the student may
learn to persist in learning efforts, even after an
initial failure. If the teacher, worried that students
will not take the first test seriously, only allows,
say, 80% of the second score, the students "new"
score will be 64% (.80 x .80 = .64). In this case,
the student may learn that it is not worth the effort
to persist in learning after initial failure, and so
the teacher's feedback becomes irrelevant. The

a valued activity (and in the absence of extrinsic teacher's feedback on the first exam may have
incentives) this should increase student engage- been very specific and encouraging, but value of
ment. Providing feedback that students can use that feedback to students is greatly reduced by a
to improve their understanding or performance punitive grading system.
can also increase engagement, if they also have
an opportunity to act on that feedback.
wSome teachers hope that students will use Motivation and Assessment in Larger
what they learn from feedback on one piece of Educational Systems
work to do a better job on a future one. This may
be difficult for students, especially when they are Recent research suggests that novice teachers
learning standards for performance or if tasks consider both feasibility and value in deciding
are perceived to be dissimilar. The relevance of which assessment practices to take up (Nolen
a specific comment on a social studies essay et al., 2011; Nolen et al., 2009). Enhancing
on the role of a free press in a democracy, for teachers' views of the value of formative assess-
example, may not be clear to a student as he ment and feedback for supporting learning and
contemplates the next essay on the right to bear motivation has been the focus of many articles
arms. More general comments (e.g., "You need in practitioner journals. Feasibility depends, to a
more support for your claims") might be easier large extent, on the characteristics of the educa-
to generalize, but only if the student understands tional system in which teachers practice, includ-
how to act on them. A more effective way for ing number of students; control over pacing or
students to be able to act on feedback is to revise curriculum; the nature, presence, and meaning of
and resubmit the same work. This may take the standardized tests; and administrative support for
form of a rough draft-feedback-revision cycle, making the adjustments to teaching that may be
a process portfolio documenting stages in work suggested by formative assessment (Black et al.,
with feedback, or being able to retake a test 2004). Take, for example, the recommendation
or quiz after feedback. If feedback is to inform that teachers provide formative assessment with
revision, it can more easily incorporate specific feedback. The research suggests that providing
suggestions for improvement that can then be specific information about performance related to
tried out by the student, providing additional standards that is couched in encouraging terms
opportunities for learning. leads to increased motivation and persistence,
The perceived value of the feedback to stu- and is perceived by students to be more fair
dents, however, may be limited if they conflict and effective than normative praise, extrinsic
with the teacher's grading system. Let's say, rewards, or grades (Butler, 1987; Thorkildsen
et al., 1994). Thus, teachers are urged to provide
for example, that a student receives a score of
64% on a test and is allowed to retake the informative feedback without grades for optimal
effect (Black
test after further study. She uses the pattern of et al., 2004). Because of the nature
of most
errors and the teacher's feedback to improve herschool systems, however, teachers must
understanding of the material, earning balance
an 80%this advice with the need to collect
enough
on the retake. If the teacher simply replaces theinformation about students' learning and

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Nolen Linking Formative Assessment and Motivation

skill level to make reliable and valid decisions These modifications were only partially suc-
cessful. Despite theoretical predictions that em-
about grades. To secondary school teachers with
bedding formative assessments into a science
90-150 students and a district requirement to
curriculum would result in increased learning and
produce quarterly grades, for example, collecting
information, providing useful comments for stu-motivation, results were not statistically signifi-
cant (Yin et al., 2008). In examining their find-
dents returned in a timely fashion, but not being
able to use the assessment for grading purposesings, the research team compared the practice of
may seem unrealistic. Stobart (2006) noted thisindividual teachers across the experimental and
tension between formative and summative assess- control groups and found that teachers in both
ment purposes in the larger system, and states groups varied considerably in the extent to which
the formative assessments were used as intended
that it can push teachers toward using formative
assessments for recording and monitoring rather (Furtak et al., 2008). It is important to note that
than to support student learning and engagement.this project attempted to change the assessment
practice of individual teachers from a variety of
Like other teaching practice, assessment prac-
tice is embedded in, and takes its meaning from,schools and districts across multiple states. The
the larger social structures in which teachers researchers
do did not take into account the specific
their work. The functions served by assessment school, district, or state contexts that related
to their participants' assessment practice (e.g.,
tools and artifacts in these educational systems
district assessment or reporting policies; link
help to shape how teachers employ them in
between the project's embedded assessments and
their day-to-day teaching activity (Nolen et al.,
2011). In a project to develop assessment toolsstate standardized tests, length of class or grading
embedded in science curricula, Shavelson and period, etc.). It seems likely that differences in
his colleagues (Ayala et al., 2008; Shavelson school, district, and state assessment contexts
et al., 2008; Yin et al., 2008) found that, despite were at least partially responsible for variation in
training in the use of embedded formative assess- teachers' implementation of embedded formative
ment, experienced teachers in the project's pilot assessments, but this was not examined. As Yin
study used the formative assessment tools sum- et al. (2008) stated, they learned that "simply
matively, undercutting the formative purposes embedding assessments in curriculum will not
for which they were designed. Consistent with impact students' learning and motivation, unless
their typical assessment (i.e., testing) practice, the teachers use the information from embedded
pilot teachers provided reviews for the formative assessment to modify their teaching" (p. 354).
assessments and did not provide feedback to Enacting formative assessment requires both ped-
students for as much as several weeks after the agogical and content-area expertise, but it also
fact. The researchers attribute these modifications has to fit into overall teaching and assessment
to the teachers' summative assessment scripts , a practice in the educational system in which it is
cognitive explanation, and describe the research embedded.
team's subsequent attempts to avoid activating
these mental scripts by recasting the assessments
as reflective lessons (Ayala et al., 2008). Modifi- Motivation to Enact Formative
cations to the main project, based on pilot results, Assessment in School Systems
ranged from responding to the demands of the ed-
ucational system (e.g., reducing the time required Given the complexity of the social sys-
to use formative assessments) to changing the tems in which formative assessment and feed-
nature of the assessment activity (e.g., building back function, what approaches have promise
in ways to give feedback in the moment rather for teachers and administrators interested in
than weeks after the fact) to providing additional supporting students' engagement and learn-
training on the purposes of formative assessment ing? Paul Black and his colleagues of the
in supporting teaching and learning. King's-Medway-Oxfordshire Formative Assess-

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Engaging Students in Learning

ment Project (KMOFAP) described how a large- et al., 2004, p. 20). Collaboration provides social
scale intervention project can build in the flex- support, help in understanding the impact of
ibility that allows for differences in educational change on teachers and students within specific
systems. Rather than aiming for a one-size-fits- departmental, school, and district systems, and a
all intervention, their work with teachers and potentially fruitful exchange of ideas and strate-
schools promotes both individual and collabora- gies. Such a peer group is likely, through its
tive choice from among a variety of strategies, ongoing interactions, to support refinement and
leaving control of the process of implementation negotiation of both the value of the innovations
in local hands. In their article in Phi Betta and their feasibility. This may be especially
Kappan (Black et al., 2004), Black and his important in maintaining teachers' commitment
coauthors provided some suggestions to teachers to change over time, and for working to develop a
and administrators that both take the complexity better fit between the innovations and the systems
into account and support incremental change in in which they reside.
educational systems. In particular, three of their
suggestions for implementing formative assess-
ment are consistent with the foregoing analysis. Administrator Support: Making It Part of
a School Improvement Plan

Start Small A third essential, according to Black et al.

(2004), is administrator support. They suggested
One way for teachers to reduce the complexitythat the system's interpretation of the innovators'
(and associated risk) of increasing formative as-actions is crucial: They must be seen as part
sessment practices and providing feedback is toof a school improvement effort rather than as
focus on a single class or subject area. Black andthe idiosyncratic actions of a few. This entails
his colleagues (2004) also suggested beginningboth administrator support in providing meet-
with a single formative assessment strategy. Thising time for teachers involved in the change,
would allow the teacher to gauge the effectsbut also in requiring and utilizing feedback on
on student learning and motivation, but also todevelopment and new understandings from the
see the ramifications of using a strategy forinnovators to the larger system. They point out
other aspects of their teaching practice, and onthat this may have an effect on the system itself,
the classroom's social structure, without being through identifying policies and procedures that
overwhelmed. For example, trying out a mul-may obstruct teachers trying to support learning
tiple drafts or revise-and-resubmit policy may and engagement through formative assessment
have implications for lesson activities, timeplan- and feedback. The strict pacing guides followed
ning, and grading practices. Changing question-by some districts, for example, make it extremely
ing strategies during discussion may have im- difficult to use formative assessment to modify
plications for whose voices are heard, status of teaching to meet students' needs. Negotiating
individuals, and pace through the curriculum.these and other tensions (e.g., the formative-
Starting small makes it more likely that teacherssummative tension discussed earlier) is one way
will be able to see how different students are
to work toward change in the system itself.
making sense of the changes, and how that may
affect motivation and engagement.

Looking Forward
Collaborate With Other Teachers
The KMOFAP project (Black et al., 2004)
The KMOFAO researchers considered col- provides information useful to teachers and ad-
laboration with a group of teachers trying ministrators
out interested in changing their assess-
similar innovations "almost essential" (Black ment practices, including the use of feedback, to

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Nolen Linking Formative Assessment and Motivation

support learning and engagement. Their

kinds of work requiredrecom-
of elementary students in
math in Busch
mendation to start small, changing (1995).
one practice
in one classroom, can help teachers and other
educators feel more confident in taking the first
steps. It is important for teachers, students, and
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