Session I.2.

Part I Review of Fundamentals

Module 2Basic Physics and

Mathematics
Used in Radiation Protection

Session 6Modes of Radioactive

Decay and Types of Radiation
IAEA Post Graduate Educational Course
3/2003 Rev 1 Radiation Protection and Safe Use of Radiation Sources I.2.6 – slide 1 of 43
 Introduction

 Modes of radioactive decay and types of

radiation emitted will be discussed

 Students will learn about basic atomic

structure; alpha, beta, and gamma decay;
positron emission; differences between
gamma rays and x-rays; orbital electron
capture; and internal conversion

3/2003 Rev 1 I.2.6 – slide 2 of 43

 Content

 Basic atomic structure and isotopes

 Alpha, beta, and gamma decay
 Decay spectra
 Differences between gamma rays and x-rays
 Positron emission
 Orbital electron capture
 Internal conversion
3/2003 Rev 1 I.2.6 – slide 3 of 43
 Overview

 Fundamental atomic structure will be

described

 Modes of radioactive disintegration

and types of radiation emitted will be
discussed

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 Atomic Structure

proton neutron electron

3/2003 Rev 1 I.2.6 – slide 5 of 43
 Atomic Number (Z)

Hydrogen 1
Carbon 6
Cobalt 27
Selenium 34
Iridium 77
Uranium 92

3/2003 Rev 1 I.2.6 – slide 6 of 43

 Isotopes

An isotope of an element has:

 the same number of protons
 a different number of neutrons

1H 2H 3H

3/2003 Rev 1 I.2.6 – slide 7 of 43

 Isotopes

The number of
protons determines
the element.
Elements with the
same number of
protons but different
numbers of neutrons
are called isotopes.
Some isotopes are
radioactive.

3/2003 Rev 1 I.2.6 – slide 8 of 43

 Radioactive Decay

 Spontaneous changes in the nucleus of an

unstable atom

 Results in formation of new elements

 Accompanied by a release of energy, either

particulate or electromagnetic or both

 Nuclear instability is related to whether the

neutron to proton ratio is too high or too low
3/2003 Rev 1 I.2.6 – slide 9 of 43
 The Line of Stability

N>Z

3/2003 Rev 1 I.2.6 – slide 10 of 43

 Alpha Emission

 Emission of a highly energetic helium nucleus

from the nucleus of a radioactive atom

 Occurs when neutron to proton ratio is too

low

 Results in a decay product whose atomic

number is 2 less than the parent and whose
atomic mass is 4 less than the parent

 Alpha particles are monoenergetic

3/2003 Rev 1 I.2.6 – slide 11 of 43
 Alpha Particle Decay

Alpha particle
charge +2

3/2003 Rev 1 I.2.6 – slide 12 of 43

 Alpha Particle Decay

3/2003 Rev 1 I.2.6 – slide 13 of 43

 Alpha Decay Example

226
Ra decays by alpha emission

When 226Ra decays, the atomic mass decreases

by 4 and the atomic number decreases by 2

The atomic number defines the element, so the

element changes from radium to radon

226
88
Ra  Rn + 4He
222
86 2

3/2003 Rev 1 I.2.6 – slide 14 of 43

 Beta Emission

 Emission of an electron from the nucleus

of a radioactive atom ( n  p+ + e-1 )

 Occurs when neutron to proton ratio is too

high (i.e., a surplus of neutrons)

 Beta particles are emitted with a whole

spectrum of energies (unlike alpha
particles)

3/2003 Rev 1 I.2.6 – slide 15 of 43

 Beta Particle Decay

Beta particle
charge -1

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 Beta Particle Decay

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 Beta Decay of 99Mo

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 Beta Spectrum

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 Rule of Thumb

Average energy of a beta spectrum is about

one-third of its maximum energy or:

1
Eav = 3
Emax

3/2003 Rev 1 I.2.6 – slide 20 of 43

 Positron (Beta+) Emission

 Occurs when neutron to proton ratio is

too low ( p+  n + e+ )

 Emits a positron (beta particle whose

charge is positive)

 Results in emission of 2 gamma rays

(more on this later)

3/2003 Rev 1 I.2.6 – slide 21 of 43

 Positron (Beta+) Emission

3/2003 Rev 1 I.2.6 – slide 22 of 43

 Positron Decay

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 Positron Decay

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 Positron Decay

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 Positron Annihilation

3/2003 Rev 1 I.2.6 – slide 26 of 43

 Orbital Electron Capture

 Also called K Capture

 Occurs when neutron to proton ratio is too

low

 Form of decay competing with positron

emission

 One of the orbital electrons is captured by

the nucleus: e-1 + p+1  n

 Results in emission of characteristic x-rays

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 Orbital Electron Capture

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 Orbital Electron Capture

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 Ionization

ionized
atom ejected
+1 electron
-1

radiation
path
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 X-Ray Production
electron fills
electron
vacancy
ejected

characteristic
x-rays

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 Electromagnetic Spectrum

Ultra- Infra-
x- and -rays violet Visible red

Increase in wavelength : decrease in frequency and energy

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 Gamma Ray Emission

 Monoenergetic radiations emitted from

nucleus of an excited atom following
radioactive decay

 Rid nucleus of excess energy

 Have characteristic energies which can be

used to identify the radionuclide

 Excited forms of radionuclides often

referred to as “metastable”, e.g., 99mTc.
Also called “isomers”
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 Gamma Ray Emission

Gamma Radiation

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 Gamma Ray Emission

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 Photon Emission

Difference
Between
X-Rays and
Gamma Rays

3/2003 Rev 1 I.2.6 – slide 36 of 43

 Internal Conversion

 Alternative process by which excited

nucleus of a gamma emitting isotope rids
itself of excitation energy

 The nucleus emits a gamma ray which

interacts with an orbital electron, ejecting
the electron from the atom

 Characteristic x-rays are emitted as outer

orbital electrons fill the vacancies left by the
conversion electrons
3/2003 Rev 1 I.2.6 – slide 37 of 43
 Internal Conversion

 These characteristic x-rays can themselves

be absorbed by orbital electrons, ejecting
them.

 These ejected electrons are called Auger

electrons and have very little kinetic energy

3/2003 Rev 1 I.2.6 – slide 38 of 43

 Internal Conversion

3/2003 Rev 1 I.2.6 – slide 39 of 43

 Internal Conversion

137
Cs Emits Gamma
Betas Ray emitted
during 85%
of 137Cs
transitions
0.946 x 0.898 = 0.85

Internal
Conversion
Electron
emitted
about 10%
3/2003 Rev 1 I.2.6 – slide 40 of 43
 Summary of Radioactive Decay Mechanisms

Characteristics Change in Change in

Decay of Parent Atomic Number Atomic
Mode Radionuclide (Z) Mass Comments

Alpha Neutron Poor -2 -4 Alphas Monoenergetic

Beta Neutron Rich +1 0 Beta Energy Spectrum

Positron Neutron Poor -1 0 Positron Energy Spectrum

Electron K-Capture; Characteristic

Neutron Poor -1 0
Capture X-rays Emitted
Excited
Gamma None None Gammas Monoenergetic
Energy State

Excited Ejects Orbital Electrons;

Internal
None None characteristic x-rays and
Conversion Energy State Auger electrons emitted

3/2003 Rev 1 I.2.6 – slide 41 of 43

 Summary

 Basic atomic structure was described

 Isotopes were defined
 Modes of radioactive disintegration were
discussed (including alpha, beta, gamma,
positron emission, orbital electron capture,
and internal conversion)
 Ionization was defined
 X-ray production and the differences
between gamma rays and x-rays were
described

3/2003 Rev 1 I.2.6 – slide 42 of 43

 Where to Get More Information

 Cember, H., Introduction to Health Physics, 3rd

Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York (2000)

 Firestone, R.B., Baglin, C.M., Frank-Chu, S.Y., Eds.,

Table of Isotopes (8th Edition, 1999 update), Wiley,
New York (1999)

 International Atomic Energy Agency, The Safe Use

of Radiation Sources, Training Course Series No. 6,
IAEA, Vienna (1995)

3/2003 Rev 1 I.2.6 – slide 43 of 43