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The Fundamental Particles of Physics

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The Fundamental Particles
of Physics

By
Joseph M. Brown

Basic Research Press

The Fundamental Particles
of Physics

©
2018

By
Joseph M. Brown
First Edition
First Impression
Copy of 1000 copies

ISBN: 978-0-9883180-4-5
Published By
Basic Research Press
120 East Main Street
Starkville, MS 39759
United States of America
basicresearchpress.com
 Acknowledgement

I thank Brittney Patterson for typing and illustrating this

book. I also want to thank McRae Hopper for the cover design.
 The Fundamental Particles of Physics

Table of Contents

Abstract
I. Introduction.................................................11
II. Discussion of the Particles................................12
III. The Graviton (Alias, the Brutino)..................17
IV. The Neutrinos, v................................................20
V. The Proton, p...................................................34
VI. The Photon, γ..................................................39
VII. The Electron, e.................................................43
VIII. The Unstable Fundamental Matter Particles.....47
A. The Muon, μ..............................................47
B. The Tauon, τ..............................................52
C. The Charged Pions, π -, π+..........................54
D. The Neutral Pion, πo.................................57
E. The Charged Kaons, K+, K-.........................58
F. The Large Neutral Kaons, K2o, K 2o...............60
G. The Small Neutral Kaons, K1o, K 1o.............62
H. The Eta, η....................................................63
I. The Neutron, n...........................................65
J. The Lambda, λo..........................................68
K. The Positive Sigmas, Σ+, Σ + .......................69
L. The Negative Sigmas, Σ-, Σ +-........................70
M. The Neutral Sigmas, Σo, Σ + ..........................71
N. The Charged Xis, Ξ-, Ξ +..............................72
O. The Neutral Xis, Ξo, Ξ o..............................73
P. The Omegas, Ω-, Ω -...................................74
 Table of Contents Continued

IX. Masses of the Fundamental Particles.....75

X. What We Have Learned About the
Fundamental Particles......................................78
XI. The Five Forces of Nature...............................82
XII. Symmetry In Physics - The TCP Theorem.....86
XIII. The Supposed Violation of Parity.............89
XIV. Conclusions .......................................................94
XV. References ........................................................100
 The Fundamental Particles of Physics
Abstract

There are four major categories of fundamental

particles of physics:

1. Brutinos
2. Neutrinos
3. Matter
4. Photons

Brutinos are small, spherical, elastic particles which

make up an ether gas which, in turn, makes up everything
in the universe. Neutrinos are nuclear sized particles
which are self-organizing and continually organize
brutinos from the ether into two fine opposite streams of
brutinos. Neutrinos usually take linear paths at a speed
slightly greater than the speed of light, but some are
forced into circular paths, which makes matter. The basic
unit of matter is a single neutrino orbiting in a closed
path. We call this an elementary matter particle. Matter
interacts with other matter by expelling, or absorbing,
a closed elliptic ring of brutinos which are moving at the
speed of light and which are stored in wavespaces of the
fine structure of matter. When not in the elliptic ring, i.e.,
during transmission, the brutinos are spread uniformly
over one wave length of a harmonic wave as they transport
at the speed of light. This harmonic wave is a photon.
The largest elementary matter particle is a proton and
the smallest is an electron. They are the only stable matter
particles. All other matter particles consist of two or more
elementary particles. The multiple particle leptons (the
muon and the tauon) consists of three elementary matter
particles, each one of which has spin 1/2. The mesons
consist of two spin 1/2 particles with opposing rotation to
produce zero spin. The multiparticle baryons each have
one or more spin 1/2 particles orbiting a proton.
 The Fundamental Particles of Physics

I. Introduction

During the nineteenth century, chemists were

discovering atoms which make up the physical
things we see. Around the turn of the 20th century,
physicists determined that the atoms were made
of three different elementary particles, namely,
electrons, protons, and neutrons. During the last
half of the 20th century, physicists were trying to
determine more basic particles, such as quarks,
which, they presume, make up the matter we
see. A small group of physicists, of which I am a
member, has been trying since 1964 to determine
the structures of the elementary particles using
an entirely different approach than that of most
physicists.
Our group started with the assumption that
everything in the universe is made up of a single type
of classical (Newtonian) particle. We then set out to
determine if we could construct all the elementary
particles. This paper presents the results of our
search.

11
 II. Discussion of the Particles

Table 1 lists the elementary particles along

with some of their characteristics. This table was
compiled from Table 1 of Ford [1], data on page 30
of Hill [2], and other sources.
There are 42 different particles in the table.
Thirty four of the particles are made up of one
or more elementary matter particles, where an
elementary matter particle consists of a single
orbiting neutrino. Four of the matter particles
are made of one elementary matter particle (the
electron, the proton, and their antiparticles). They
have unlimited lifetimes. The other eight particles
travel at a speed equal to, or greater than, the speed
of light.
We have developed the properties of the eight
non-matter particles in great depth. These are the
graviton (alias, the brutino), the photon, and the
neutrinos. See The Mechanical Theory of Everything
by Brown [3]. In this same reference we also present
the detailed structures of the four single elementary
matter particles, namely the proton, the electron,
and their antiparticles.
The leptons are the particles having a mass
smaller than the proton and having a spin of 1/2.
The lepton matter particles are charged. The

12
 Table 1. The Fundamental Particles of Physics

Family Particle Symbol Mass Spin Electric Antiparticle No. of Average Typical mode
Name Name kg or Charge distinct lifetime of decay
elect. mass particles (seconds)
photon γ(gamma 10-66 to 1 neutral same particle 1 infinite -
ray) 10-26
graviton 2 neutral same particle 1 infinite -
g 10-66
Leptons electron's ve ? 1/2 neutral ve 2 infinite -
neutrino

13
electron e- 1 1/2 negative e+ (positron) 2 infinite -
muon's vμ ? 1/2 neutral vμ 2 infinite -
neutrino

muon μ- 206.77 1/2 negative μ+ 2 2.20×10-13 μ -→e -+ v e+vμ

Tauon's vτ ? 1/2 neutral vτ 2 infinite τ -→μ- + v μ +v τ

neutrino

tauon τ 1777.0 1/2 negative τ+ 2 2.906×10-13 τ -→e- + v e +v τ

 Table 1. (Continued)

Mesons pion π+ 273.1 0 positive π+ 3 2.61×10-8 π+→μ+ +v μ

π- 273.1 0 negative π-o same as the 2.61×10-8 π -→μ- + v μ
πo 264.1 0 neutral π particles 0.9×10-16 π0→γ +γ
}
+ 1.23×10-8
kaon K+ 966.4 0 positive K (negative) 6 K+→π++π o
K2o 974.3 + 0 neutral K 2o 0.87×10-10 K-→ →π++π -
K1o 974.3 - 0 neutral and
K 1o 5.7×10-8
eta η 1074 0 neutral same particle 1 more
η →γ +γ
than10-22
Baryons nucleon p(proton) 1836.10 1/2 positive p (negative) infinite -
4

14
n(neutron) 1838.63 1/2 neutral n 1010 n→p+e-+ v e

o o -10 o - -
lambda Λ 2183.1 1/2 neutral Λ 2 2.51×10 Λ →p +π

Σ+ 2327.7 1/2 positive 8.1×10-11 Σ+→n+π +

Σ +(negative)
sigma Σ- 2343.3 1/2 negative 6 1.6×10-10 Σ-→n+π -
Σ - (positive)
Σo 2333.7 1/2 neutral Σo about 10-20 Σo→Λo+γ

xi Ξ- 2585.5 1/2 negative 4 1.75×10-10 Ξ-→Λo+π -

Ξ - (positive)
Ξo 2573 1/2 neutral 3.0×10-10 Ξo→Λo+π o
Ξo
omega Ω 3276 3/2(?) negative Ω - (positive) 2 1.5×10-10 Ω→Ξo+π -
mechanism for developing charge limits their
mass to approximately the proton mass. The decay
products of muons and tauons consist of neutrinos
and antineutrinos. Thus, we know that the particles
consist of at least three elementary matter particles.
The muon and tauon are constructed of three
elementary matter particles in order to produce
spin 1/2. In the leptons of more than one matter
particle (i.e., the muons and tauons), the matter
particles are held together by the weak nuclear force
(since the matter particles are counter-rotating).
The mesons are particles having a mass
smaller than the proton and having a zero spin. The
mechanism for producing zero spin requires more
than one matter particle. Also, the decay products
consist of neutrinos and antineutrinos which
implies a structure of at least two matter particles.
It appears that two matter particles are necessary
and sufficient for the mesons. The meson matter
particles are held together by the (short-range)
weak nuclear force
The baryons all have masses equal to or
greater than the mass of a proton. It appears that
all baryons are either a proton or a proton with one,
or more, matter particles orbiting about it. Thus,
every baryon has a proton as part, or all, of its
structure. Some of the orbital radii are smaller than

15
the neutrino size. Two of the baryons, the Σ+ and
the Σ-, have the same constituents, but are organized
differently.
The farther we go down the particle list in the
table, except for the nucleons, the less certain we
are regarding the structures. We have uncertainties,
but we hope what insight we have presented will be
useful to some particle research scientists.
Incidentally, for every particle there is an
antiparticle. The antiparticle in some cases is the
same as the particle.

16
 III. The Graviton (Alias the Brutino)

In speculative theories of quantum gravity, the

graviton is a hypothetical fundamental particle that
mediates the force of gravitation in the framework
of quantum theory. The mass of the graviton is
no more than 7.7×10-23ev/c2(7.7×10-23×1.60×10-19/
(3×108)2=1.37×10-59 kg). A photon with the energy
of a graviton would have a wavelength of

λg = h/mc = 2π × 1.05×10-34 /(1.37×10-59 ×3×108)

=1.66×1017m (1)

The radius of the observable universe is in the order

of 1024m, or approximately 107 times as great as the
graviton wavelength.
The brutino is a spherical, smooth, elastic
particle which makes up everything physical in the
universe, according to the kinetic particle theory
of physics. It is the unique particle from which all
matter, radiation, and neutrinos, are made. The
brutino properties are developed in [3]. The values
of the properties are

mass mb = 2.89×10-66 kg
radius rb = 4.052×10-35 m (the Planck length)
mean velocity v m = 3.510×109 m/s
RMS velocity v r = 3π / 8 v m = 3.810×109 m/s
17
The brutino makes up an ether gas with the
properties

mean free path l = 2.35 × 10-16 m

1
particle number density η = = 1.46 ×
4 2π rb
2
l
1083/m3

mass density ρ = 4.23 × 1017 kg/m3

1
spacing s= = 1.899 × 10-28m
ηo1/3

A brutino moving at the speed of light would

have the same energy as a photon with a wavelength,
λ, of

λ = h/(mc) = 2π×1.05×10-34 / (2.89×10-66×3×108)

= 7.61×1023 m ≈ 1024 m (2)

We note that this wavelength is close to the radius

of the observable universe.
In the kinetic particle theory of the universe,
matter particles, as a result of their mass orbiting
at the speed of light, produce a breathing-sphere
type of motion at some distance from the particle.
The breathing sphere has polarity resulting from

18
the handedness of the neutrino making the matter
particle. This breathing motion with polarity
produces the Coulomb electrostatic field. Two such
breathing spheres, such as those making a proton
and an electron in a hydrogen atom, produce the
gravitational field. The half amplitude of the motion
produced by the two orbiting matter particles is the
radius of the brutino. This radius, being extremely
small, produces a very weak field. From this
discussion we note that the brutino has an extremely
important role in gravitation - possibly similar
to the role of a graviton in the quantum theory of
gravitation.

19
 IV The Neutrinos, v

Complete condensations of the brutinos occur

randomly, but continually, and produce neutrinos.
The neutrino takes in mass at the rate1 of 10-2 kg/s.
The neutrino is defined by its sonic sphere, which is
an almost spherical surface at which brutinos flow
into the neutrino at their speed of sound. The radius
of this sphere is approximately 10-15m. The neutrinos
form with masses which vary by several orders of
magnitude, with right- and left-handed twist. They
expel the incoming mass out of two fine streams,
one directed forward at velocity v r and one directed
aft at velocity v m. The neutrino develops a thrust
of 1.43 meganewtons. The neutrino translates at
the velocity v r-v m, where v r = 3π / 8 v m. It produces
power of force times velocity = 1.43×106×3×108 =
4.29×1014 watts. Figure 1 shows the neutrino.

1 This rate is determined from the analysis of the proton given in [3].

20
 Figure 1. The Neutrino

The neutrino is a flow pattern in a gaseous

ether which pervades the universe. The flow
pattern is produced by a microrocket pump. The
microrocket pump is produced by the random flows
of the ether gas. The microrocket pump translates
at the velocity v r - v m. The pump is cylindrical in
shape and consists of a completely dense forward
section and a semi-dense aft section. The pump
develops a force of 1.43 meganewtons. Outside the
microrocket pump there is the spherical microgas
compressor. This section receives ether gas at
its almost spherical surface (with a radius rc) at
sonic speed, and compresses the gas by aligning

21
the incoming particles, then by compressing the
gas to near solid, turning the particles to produce
angular momentum, and turning them again to
direct them forward and aft of the direction of the
neutrino velocity. There also is the third section of
the neutrino which consists of the subsonic flow
which reaches sonic conditions just at the location
where the particles enter the compression chamber.
This third section is the subsonic flow region and
it extends from the outside of the compression
chamber indefinitely in the outward direction.
Figure 2 is a sketch showing the principal
characteristics of the neutrino. The subsonic region
is defined by the almost spherical surface which has
a radius, rc, approximately 10-15m. The gas flows into
the sonic surface reaching the local speed of sound
(0.7v m) at the surface. In the compression chamber
the gas initially flows slowly but since the mean free
path of the gas is slightly smaller than the radius
of the compression chamber, particles coming from
the opposite surface of the compression chamber
do not impact the incoming particles.

22
 Figure 2. The Neutrino Showing the Core
and Compression Chamber

As a result, the flow goes critical and almost solidifies

before reaching the core. The gas then turns to
circulate around the diameter of the sphere which
diameter is parallel to the neutrino velocity. The gas
then turns again to travel parallel to the neutrino
velocity approximately half forward and half aft. In
all this motion inside the compression chamber as
well as in the subsonic region, the particle speeds
do not change; only their directions change. The gas
particles, now all aligned parallel to the neutrino
velocity, are forced into the core, i.e., the microrocket
pump. As half the particles are pressed into one side
of the microrocket pump and half are pressed into
the other side, one of the sides gets solidified and
begins moving away from the microrocket pump
center at velocity v r. Meanwhile, in the other side

23
of the microrocket pump, the particles are not able
to solidify and, as a result, they move away from
the microrocket pump center at velocity v m. The
net result of this is that the microrocket pump
translates in the direction of the dense side of the
microrocket pump at the velocity v r - v m. The huge
pressure inside the core times the cross sectional
area is a large force. Since the area separating the
dense region from the semi-dense region translates,
the force is a thrust which does work.
Particles fed into the dense side initially are
translating at a range of velocities with a mean
speed of v m, same as they had in the background.
Also, their RMS speed is v r, same as they had in
the background. However, when these particles get
solidified as they are pressed into the microrocket
pump without changing their energy their single
velocity is v r, the background RMS speed. Thus,
their transport velocity changes from v m to v r, an
8% increase.
Let us consider the sizing of the neutrino. It is
necessary to have a mass flow rate into the neutrino
which will provide solidification at a radius large
enough to house the microrocket pump. We do not
have a way to compute this. However, measurements
of the neutrino cross section indicate that the core
has a dimension in the order of 10-25m. Based on this,

24
we take the solidification radius to be 10-25m. Now,
in order for the concept of the neutrino mechanism
to be valid it is necessary that there exists a sphere
with its center at the center of the microrocket pump
into which sphere the gas reaches sonic speed. Of
course, this means that the gas coming into this
sphere must be compressed and reach the solid
core. This sphere is called the sonic sphere and its
radius is rc.
Before proceeding further, we need to explain
what is required for solidification of a gas. Let us
assume we have a sphere of radius r p (representing
a stationary microrocket pump) immersed in a
gas and for which any particle which touches the
outside of the sphere disappears. Corresponding to
this sphere there is a larger sphere having the same
center with such a radius rc that if the gas impinging
upon the spherical surface were at sonic state and
if then all the mass flow were to reach the sphere
of radius r p , then the mass flow rate would just be
that rate required for solidification. What we’re
saying is that we must have a central pump which
will collect all particles which get within a distance
rc - r p from the pump and further that the pump will
force the flow to the critical conditions (i.e. at sonic
conditions) at rc. This is a tall order! Incidentally
for any given gas and any given r p the value of rc is

25
easily determined—simply from mass continuity.

m = 0.649ρo(4πrc2)(0.7v m) = ρs(4πr p2)v m (3)

or

rcrc=− rp ρs / ( 0.649 ρo × 0.7 ) (4)

where ρs is the density of the particles in the core.

Now we are faced with the (often thought to
be impossible) task of finding the mechanism by
which nature solidifies gas. In other words, can we
find a value of rc which will permit solidification?
From our analysis of the neutrino, we have the solid
core density ρs as
⎡ ⎛4 ⎞⎤
ρ s = ⎢ mb / ⎜ π rb3 ⎟ ⎥ PF (5)
⎣ ⎝3 ⎠⎦

where mb = 2.89×10-66kg—the ether particle mass, rb

the basic particle radius 4.052×10-35m, and PF is the
sphere packing factor which we take as 0.7. Now

2.89 × 10 −66
ρs = × 0.7
⎡4 −35 3 ⎤
(
⎢⎣ 3 π 4.052 × 10 )⎥⎦

= 7.26×1036 kg/m3 (6)

ρo = 4.23×1017 kg/m3
r p = 10-25m

26
where ρo is the background density. Thus

rc = 10-25 7.26 × 10 36
0.649 × 4.23 × 1017 × 0.7
(7)
=6.15×10-16 ≈ 10-15m

We discuss the solidification problem now.

What we have is the specific ether gas which
pervades the universe (according to our theory).
We have a microgas pump which has a dimension in
the order of 10-25m, which translates at 8% the mean
speed of the ether gas (3×108m/s), and which, we
believe, will suck in ether gas particles, completely
condense them, turn them so they rotate about
the neutrino translational vector and produce an
angular momentum of ħ/2, then turn them again
so approximately half are translating forward and
approximately half aft.
The significant issue here is whether or not
the gas can be completely condensed. If that occurs
the remaining flow problems are straightforward
classical mechanics flows.
Figure 3 shows the gas densities and flow
velocities required for the kinetic particle theory of
physics. Can these flows be realized? Notice that we

27
have ignored the fact that the neutrino is translating
(slowly). For answering the condensation question
we can ignore the translation.

Microrocket
0.7vm pump radius rp

Sonic
vm sphere
rc

vm vm

-25
10 m
x2

0.7vm

ρ at rc = 1018 kg/m3
ρ at rρ = 1018(rc/r p)2
=1018(10-15/10-25)2
=1038 kg/m3
Figure 3. Required Neutrino Flows for the
Kinetic Particle Theory of Physics

If nothing unusual happened we would expect

the flow into the microrocket pump to be at the

28
velocity 0.7v m and at the density 0.649 ρo, and the
sonic sphere to be at a flow velocity 0.7v m(10-25/10-15)2
and at the density ρo. However, based upon our 60
years studying this problem, including our analyses
of the neutrino and what the neutrino must do, we
believe the following occurs.
The flow into the pump begins at velocity
0.7v m and density 0.649ρo. Due to that initial flow,
ether particles are biased to produce additional
flow into the hole (i.e., the pump). This produces
additional flow and the neutrino goes critical.
Having a mean free path less than rc means
that most particles entering the sonic sphere will
not pass the center of the sphere thus preventing
particles from disrupting the flow toward the center.
Particles thus flow almost freely toward the center.
There is no back-pressure as the particles flow. They
are easily squeezed together. Going critical certainly
seems to be a possibility.
Going critical requires the correct mean free
path. Because of other requirements on the neutrino
we have determined the mean free path, l, required
is l = 2.35×10-16m (and rc =7.50×10-16m). The sonic
sphere radius mean free path ratio required is
l/rc= 7.50/2.35 = 3.19. Thus, the sonic sphere radius
required is about three times the mean free path.
Figure 4 shows several mean free paths in three

29
 Sonic Sphere rc = 2.35×10-16m
l=r

l
Micropump
a. Sonic Sphere Radius Small Mean Free Path

Sonic Sphere l = 0.313 r

= 0.313 (7.5×10-16)
rc = 7.5×10-16 = 2.35 ×10-16m

l
Micropump

b. Sonic Sphere and Required Mean Free Path

Sonic
Sphere
l

rc = 2.35×10-15m

Micropump

c. Sonic Sphere Radius Larger Than Mean Free Path

Figure 4. Various Sizes of Proposed Sonic Spheres

30
different sonic sphere sizes. Figure 4a shows a sonic
sphere with a radius equal the mean free path. In
this figure note that the mean free paths are long
enough for particles entering one side of the sphere
to pass the center and interfere with particles
coming into the other side.
Figure 4b is a sketch showing the required
mean free path sphere for critical flow along with
several mean free paths. With the required sonic
sphere radius (7.50×10-16m) shown in Figure 4b
there are opportunities to respond to the central flow
bias provided by the micropump. This, of course,
promotes criticality. Figure 4c shows a sonic sphere
radius ten times the mean free path. It is presumed
that with so many particles coming in they could
not get aligned to go into the micropump. They
would get swamped.

31
 The result of the above qualitative arguments
may be of little value. There may be some theoretical
analysis way of determining if criticality can occur
and what the optimum value of l is—or, alternatively,
given l what is the optimum value of the flow rate
and thus rc. In fact, the flows are almost completely
described in the above paragraphs. The equation of
state would be inhomogeneous. It may be possible
to determine if all the classical mechanics equations
are satisfied throughout the structure. If so, the flow
is a possible state. In any case, we leave the question
open for the present time.
It is interesting that so much hinges on this
question of criticality. If criticality does occur then
the second law of thermodynamics is not universally
applicable. Also, and most important, if criticality
occurs then the neutrino provides the means for
obtaining order from the chaotic ether field. The
neutrino envisioned in the kinetic particle theory
of physics provides the entropy reducer for the
universe and provides all the usable energy in the
universe. A lot rides on the criticality question!
We believe that the arguments in our book, The
Mechanical Theory of Everything, for the neutrino
structure envisioned here are compelling. We think
criticality occurs.
The role of the neutrinos and their single

32
flow rate, independent of the neutrino mass,
producing the angular momentum of ħ/2 cannot
be overemphasized. Its importance is seen in all
the matter particles. Everything which occurs in
the matter world uses a flow of background gas
producing the angular momentum ħ/2. This flow
is the basis of quantum theory. Everywhere there
is one orbiting neutrino there is one ether particle
flow region producing an angular momentum of
ħ/2.

33
 V. The Proton, p

The proton is formed from a proton-sized

neutrino (mass = 1.67×10-27 kg) encountering other
neutrinos which causes it to take a closed circular
path. The thrust of all neutrinos is 1.43 meganewtons
and this thrust balances the centrifugal force of the
revolving neutrino. The original neutrino had an
angular momentum of ħ/2. The proton angular
momentum likewise is ħ/2, since the neutrino
making the proton was initially the translating
neutrino. Only one mass neutrino can balance
the thrust and produce an angular momentum
of ħ/2 - and that is the mass of the proton. The
proton is difficult to produce and is practically
indestructible. It cannot decay by the usual ways
of statistical variations - it must be destroyed by
the method of its production. If the neutrino has
a resonance change which changes its mass, it will
immediately be forced back to its original mass in
order to conserve angular momentum.
All matter particles consist of one, or more,
orbiting neutrinos. An orbiting neutrino is a matter
particle - an elementary matter particle.
The fundamental unit of matter is a single
orbiting neutrino. We call this an elementary
matter particle. Wherever there is matter, there is

34
an orbiting neutrino. The neutrino is producing an
almost spherical inflow of ether gas and sending out
two fine streams of outflow, one at velocity v r and
the other at v m. Additionally, anywhere there is an
elementary matter particle there is a flow producing
a measurable angular momentum of ħ/2.
The proton stands alone as the largest
elementary matter particle. A more massive orbiting
neutrino would have an angular momentum greater
than ħ/2.
Most physicists believe the proton is made
up of several other more basic particles. We think
these other more basic particles they observe are
either artifacts of their collision experiments and/
or are the wake flow produced by the single orbiting
neutrino. We believe all matter particles made up
of more than one elementary matter particle are
unstable.

35
 Figure 5. The Proton

Figure 5 shows the proton. Actually, the

orbiting sonic sphere radius is much larger than
the orbit diameter 10-16 m, but the neutrino core is
much smaller than the orbital radius. As the proton
neutrino orbits, it sprays out brutinos at velocity
v r, followed by a spray in the opposite direction at
velocity v m. The overall effect of those outputs, at
a distance from the orbit, is to produce an in-and-
out, expanding-contracting, spherically symmetric
flow similar to that of a breathing sphere. This
breathing flow produces the Coulomb field. Polarity
is produced by the right-hand twist of the proton
neutrino.
In addition to the general breathing motion

36
produced by the proton there are waves with crest-
to-crest dimensions in the order of 10-16m, the radius
of the orbiting neutrino making the proton. The
tangential motion in the field also produces 10-16m
sized waves. The resulting configuration consists of
10-16m by 10-16m by 10-16m sized flows which we call
wavespaces. The wavespaces are the fine structure
of the electrostatic field. The wavespaces move
radially from the charged particle at the velocity of
light c which is very slightly less than v r-v m. The
wavespaces carry away the mass that is continually
absorbed by the proton neutrino.
Figure 6 shows the fine structure of the proton
field. Each of the wavespaces has a circulation flow
which is right-handed for a positive charge. Right-
handedness is determined by the counterclockwise
flow of the neutrino making the proton.

37
 Wavespaces
Velocity = c ≈ vr-vm

This circulation
is right-handed
since the proton
neutrino motion
is counterclockwise.

Neutrino
vm

c vr

Proton

Background gas
circulates in each
wavespace .
c≈ vr-vm
2×10-16m

Figure 6. Fine Structure of the Proton

Electrostatic Field.

All matter at rest consists of orbiting neutrinos

moving in a circular path at a speed slightly greater
than the speed of light. In order for matter to move,
groups of ether particles, making up a photon,
impact matter and cause the orbiting neutrino to
take a plane spiral path without changing its speed.
Thus, motion is easy to achieve in the extremely
dense background. Further, the maximum speed
at which matter can move is less than the speed of
light since matter acceleration is due to impacts by
photons.
38
 VI. The Photon, γ

The structure of the photon can best be

explained by its role in accelerating a matter particle,
such as the electron.
Let us consider an atom which is just ready
to emit a photon. The mass required to make the
photon is believed to be stored in an elliptic ring
of wavespaces. For low energy interactions (v/c <<
1) the ellipse is almost circular. Upon emission,
the photon mass unwinds, just as a string unwinds
from a spool. The amplitude of the resulting string
of mass is the radius of the ellipse and the length
is 2π times the radius. The photon mass is equally
distributed along the string—the same number of
brutinos are in each wavespace. The photon then
translates without undulating, similar to how a
metal wire bent in a harmonic shape translates. The
photon translates in the radial direction from the
atom at the speed of the carriers of its mass (i.e.,
the wavespaces, which move at the speed of light).
Each wavespace in Figures 7a and 7d moves only
horizontally and at the speed of light.
When a photon impacts an electron at rest, a
portion of its mass is transferred to an elliptic ring
within the electron’s fine structure wavespaces, as
shown in Figure 7c. Another portion is scattered

39
 c

a. Photon Approaching Electron

e e ν(<<c)

b. Electron at Rest c. Accelerated Electron

d. Scattered Photon

Figure 7. Photon/Electron Interaction

40
in the form of a lower energy photon as shown in
Figure 7d.
The approaching photon has the number of
brutinos per wavespace equal to the sum of the
captured brutinos plus the scattered brutinos per
wavespace. The dots in the wavespaces are symbolic
of many brutinos. Figure 7a shows the approaching
photon. Figure 7b shows the electron at rest along
with its wavespaces. Figure 7c shows the electron
after impact and moving to the right at velocity v
where v << c. Figure 7d shows the scattered photon.

41
 y

c Photon Mass

c
c Center of Charge

A νx

c ν
Θ c
a

x
c e
o
c
c

Figure 8. Geometry of the Accelerating Mass

Figure 8 shows the geometry of the

photon/electron interaction. We show A as the
center for the photon mass which is collected in the
wavespaces of the electron. We take O as the center
of mass of the electron accelerating mass/electron
system. The electron, e, rotates around this center
but with an extremely small radius as compared to
that of the captured mass. Note that the captured
photon mass is still moving at the speed of light.

42
 VII. The Electron, e

When the proton is formed it is necessary

to form another structure to balance the effect on
the background of the proton. The most obvious
balancing structure is the one producing the
negative electrostatic charge field. The structure
also must have angular momentum of ℏ/2. Finally,
it is necessary that the structure be such that it can
have an existence separate from the proton. These
properties, of course, are properties of the electron.
Our best model of a structure satisfying the
above requirements for the electron is presented
now.2 Figure 9 shows the electron structure which
is actually just the path taken by the extremely small
mass (having a core cross section in the order of 10-51
m2) making the electron3.
The dimensions on the drawing of
Figure 9 are re having a value in the order
i
of 10-19 m, rees in the order of 10-17 m , and
re in the order of 10-11 m. The smallest loop, with
am
radius re , is the inertial balancing loop where the
i
assemblage large thrust force is balanced by the
centrifugal force of the electron mass. The next
2 This model was first published in 1991 on page 156 of Brown [4] and is shown
on the front cover of that reference.
3 The cross sectional area of the electron (core) is estimated by squaring the pro-
ton core radius (1.44×10-25)×4π × the electron/proton mass ratio to the 2/3 power.
Thus Ae=4π(1.44×10-25)2(1/1836)2/3=1.74×10-51 m2. This assumes a square core.

43
larger loop 2rees is the loop balancing the electrostatic
charge of the proton, and the large circular loop
is the loop producing the angular momentum
of the electron (i.e., the spin of magnitude ℏ/2).

2rees
=2(8.97×10-18)m

ream
=2.63x10-11m

2rei
=2(5.73×10-20)m

ELECTRON
MASS
(The Neutrino
Making the
Electron)

OUTFLOW
OF MASS

Figure 9. Electron Structure

We present those analyses of the loops which we

have been able to develop.
This radius, 5.72×10-20 m, is much smaller
than the sonic sphere radius of the neutrino (10-15m)

44
and must be near the smallest orbital radius. Thus,
the electron must be the smallest possible matter
particle. The minimum energy principle may be
responsible for the electron being produced with
the mass it has.
The electron orbital (inertial) radius re is
i
controlled by balancing the assemblage thrust
(having the same value as the proton assemblage
thrust) with the centrifugal force produced by the
electron mass me. Since the electron neutrino and
the proton neutrino both translate at the speed of
light the radii are proportional to their masses.
Thus

re =r pme/mp=1.051545×10-16/1836.152668
i
=5.7268951×10-20 m (8)

Simultaneous with the formation of the small

orbital inertial balancing structure, a structure must
be formed to balance the positive electrostatic field
of the proton. The electrostatic field component is
produced by a loop made up of the inertia balancing
paths. This field component must be a wave with the
same period as that produced by the proton. The
propagation speed of this loop is smaller than the
speed of light, obviously. We guess that its speed is
α c=(c/11.7). If its path radius is 1/11.7 times the
proton radius, i.e., 1.05×10-16 m/ 11.7 = 8.97×10-18 m
45
then the wave produced will have the same period as
the proton’s. Thus, the electrostatic wave produces
the fine structure and is consistent with the proton
electrostatic field.
The velocity of propagation of the electrostatic
loop around the circle (the angular momentum
circle) is much slower than the speed of light. This
slower speed would necessitate that the angular
momentum radius be greater than the radius
required if the electron were moving at the speed
of light. This results since the angular momentum
is produced by the electron mass traveling in its
nominal circular path of radius re . We assume that
am
the propagation velocity around the largest loop, or
circle, is αc=3×108 ⁄ 137.1 =2.18×106 m/s. Thus we
compute re from
am

ℏ/2=mere αc (9)
am
or

−34
  10 ×137.1
re =    =1.05×
am  2mea c  2 × 9.11×10−31 × 3 ×108
(10)
= 2.63×10 -11
m (=rB/2)

where rB is the Bohr radius.

46
 VIII. The Unstable Fundamental Particles

A. The Muon, μ

The muon, μ, has a mass of 206.77 electron

masses, a spin of 1/2, a negative charge, and decays
in 2.20 × 10-6 sec according to the formula
μ- → e - + ve (11)

From the decay formula we know that the muon

consists of at least three (elementary) matter
particles - at least one made of a neutrino and
another made of an antineutrino. To produce a spin
of 1/2, requires at least three elementary matter
particles. The simplest assumption is that the three
matter particles have equal mass and are in orbit
side-by-side. The particles are held together by the
weak nuclear force. This force occurs when the
particles are counter-rotating and when they are
too close together to develop the Coulomb force.
The inertial radius of the muon matter
particles is given by

rµi = rei × 206.77 / 3 = 5.72 × 10 −20 × 206.77 / 3 (12)

= 3.95 × 10 −18 m

47
 The spin is 1/2 and each matter particle must
have this same spin. Thus

 206.77
= mvr = × 9.11× 10 −31 × α c × rµam (13)
2 3

From this

1.05 × 10 −34 × 137.1 (14)

rµam = = 3.82 × 10 −13 m
2 × ( 206.77 / 3) × 9.11× 10 −31 × 3 × 10 8

The charge is negative. Thus the antineutrino

matter particle must have an electrostatic loop. For
the electrostatic loop to have the same period as the
proton we have

rµes 1.05 × 10 −16

=
vµes c
(15)

Again, we assume vµes = α c from which

1.05 × 10 −16
rµes = rp α = = 8.97 × 10 −18 m (16)
137.1

Figure 10 shows the trace of the neutrino producing

the muon. Shown are the values of the radii for the

48
various loops. Figure 11 shows a mechanical model
of the muon.

2rμes
=2(8.97×10-18)m

rμam
=3.82x10-13m

2rμi
=2(3.95×10-18)m

MUON
MASS
(The Neutrino
Making the
Muon)

OUTFLOW
OF MASS

Figure 10. Muon Structure

49
 αc c

rμi=3.95×10-18m

rμ =8.97×10-18m
es

rμ =3.82×10-13m
am

αc

Figure 11. Mechanical Model of the Muon

The period of the angular momentum path τμam, is

2π rµam 2π × 3.82 × 10 −13 × 137.1

τ µam =
αc 3 × 10 8
(17)
=1.10×10-18 sec
The period for the electrostatic loop is

50
 2π 2π × 8.97 × 10 −18 137.1
τ µes = rµes = =2.20×10-24s (18)
αc 3 × 10 8

Since τμam >> τμes the neutrino has adequate time to

follow its required path.

51
B. The Tauon, τ -

The negative Tauon, τ -, has a mass of 1777.0

electron masses, a spin of 1/2, a negative charge, a
lifetime of 2.906×10-13 s, and one of its decays (17.4%
of decays) is

τ - → μ- + vµ + vτ (19)

The structure probably is quite similar to the muon.

We use three equal matter particles (mass = 1777.0/3
electron masses) with two opposite spin neutrinos,
and each of the three with a mass of 1777/3 = 592.3
electron masses, bound by the weak nuclear force,
since they are counter-rotating. Their angular
momentum radius is

= mvr = 592.3 × 9.11× 10 −31 × rτ am α c (20)
2

from which
1.05 × 10 −34 × 137.1
rτ am = (21)
2 × 592.3 × 9.11× 10 −31 × 3 × 10 8

=4.45×10-14m

The matter particle made of the antineutrino must

52
have the charge loop whose radius is

rτ = 8.97 × 10-18 m (22)

es

The inertial radius is

rτ = re ×(1777/3) = 5.72×10-20 ×592.3 = 3.39×10-17m (23)

i i

Incidentally, a particle of this type (i.e., a lepton) with a

mass more than three times the protons would have rτ
i
>r p, which is impossible. The τ angular momentum
period τ τ , is
am

2π rτ am 2π × 4.45 × 10 −14 × 137.1

τ τ am = = 1.28×10-19s (24)
αc 3 × 10 8

The τ electrostatic loop period, τ τ , is

es

2π rτ es 2π × 8.97 × 10 −18 137.1 = 2.20×10-24s (25)

τ τ es = =
αc 3 × 10 8

53
C. The Charged Pions, π -, π+

The pi meson, π -, has a mass of 273.1 electron

masses, a spin of zero, a negative charge, a lifetime
of 2.61×10-8 s (1/100th the muon’s lifetime), and
decays by the formula

π - → μ - + vμ (26)

We try for the π structure two equal mass, opposite

polarity, matter particles rotating side-by-side, each
producing a spin of 1/2, but in opposite directions.
Each matter particle produces a Coulomb-like
electrostatic field because each one emits two
streams of particles, the forward one at velocity v r
and an aft stream at velocity v m. Since the radii of
the two matter particles are smaller (by the factor
273.1/2 to 1836, or 0.0744) the fine structure has the
dimension 10-16×0.0744 =7.44×10-18 m) this prevents
coupling with the Coulomb field. However, these
fields of the two equal-mass matter particles will
produce a short range attractive force. It is possible
that this is the weak nuclear binding force for the
two matter particles. The binding force probably is
many orders of magnitude smaller than the strong
force generated if the particles were rotating in the
same direction (producing the strong nuclear force).

54
 The weak nuclear force becomes
repulsive at close range because of the increased
density as the background particles get closer to the
neutrino. This may be the mechanism keeping the
two opposite-handed neutrino from disintegrating.
The angular momentum of each particle must
not only be equal and opposite, but each must be
ħ/2. (Anytime, and any place, where there is a
neutrino, we know the neutrino produces a flow
of background gas which produces an angular
momentum of ħ/2.) Since the angular momentum
is ħ/2 we have

 273.1 (27)
= mvr = × 9.11× 10 −31 × rπ − α c
2 2 am

or

1.05 × 10 −34 × 137.1

rπ − = = 2.22 × 10 −12-13
8 =1.93×10
mm (28)
am
273.1× 9.11× 10 × 3 × 10
−31

The antineutrino must have the Coulomb

electrostatic loop. Its velocity, like before, is assumed
to be α c and then its radius, like the electron’s is

rπ -es = 8.97×10-18m (29)

55
The inertial radii of the two elementary matter
particles are

273.1 273.1
rrππ-i−i = rei = × 5.72 × 10 −20 = 7.81×10
7.78 × 10 −18-18mm (30)
2 2

For the π+ particle the roles of the two neutrinos

are interchanged.

56
D. The Neutral Pion, π o

The πo pion has a mass of 264.1, spin of zero,

neutral charge, a lifetime of 10-16 s, and decays by
the formula
πo → γ+ γ (31)

The πo is almost identical to the π- and π+ pions

except the charge is zero. We assume that πo consists
of two elementary matter particles of opposite
handedness, equal mass given by m = 264.1/2 =
132.05 electron masses. The masses are rotating in
opposite directions. Since the πo mass is less than
the charged pion (273.1 - 264.1 = 9) we assume that
the elementary matter particles are not charged.
The angular momentum radius, rπoam is

rπ o =
am
2 × α c × 132.05 × 9.11× 10 −31
(32)
=1.99×10 m -13

The inertial radius is

rπ o = 132.05rei = 132.05(5.73 × 10 −20 )

i

(33)
=7.57×10-18m

The πo antiparticle is the same as the particle.

57
E. The Charged Kaons, K+, K +

The charged kaon K+ has a mass of 966.4, zero

spin, a positive charge, a lifetime of 1.23 × 10-8 s,
and decays by the formula

K+ → π+ + πo (34)

We take the simplest structure satisfying the above

observations as two equal mass, opposite handed
elementary matter particles rotating side by side with
opposite spin of 1/2. The neutrino elementary matter
particle would have the electrostatic loop with the
radius 8.92×10-18 m. The angular momentum radius
of the particles is

 × (137.1)
rK + =
am
2 × ( 966.4 / 2 ) × 9.11× 10 −31 × 3 × 10 8
(35)
=5.45×10-14 m

The inertial radius is

966.4 966.4
rK + = rei = (5.73 × 10 −20 )
i
2 2
(36)
=2.77×10 -17
m

The two elementary matter particles are held together

58
by the weak nuclear force. The decay consists of the
two particles separating and accelerating the pions
to high velocities because of the impulse of the large
mass changing from rotation to translation.
The K + particle has a negative charge and
consists of a charged antineutrino and an uncharged
neutrino.

59
F. The Large Neutral Kaons, K2o, K 2o

The neutral kaon, Ko, possibly consists of

two configurations of the same elementary matter
particles where the two configurations have a
slightly different mass. See pages 41 and 42 of
Hill [2]. For the nominal mass of Ko we take 974.5
electron masses which is the average of the values
given by Hill [2] (974.2 em) and Ford [3] (974.15
em). The spin is zero, the charge is neutral, and the
decay formulas and times are given in (37) and (38).

Particle Decay Products Decay time

K2o → π++π - 8.9×10-11 (37)
K1o → π++πo+π -
→ π++μ-+ vµ 60000×10-11 (38)
→ π++e-+ v e
}

We have guessed that K2o, from a mass point of view,

is comparable to a hydrogen atom in a higher state
than the ground state (K1o) - and would lose mass
when it returned to the ground state. Also, we have
assumed that the higher energy state is less stable.
We assume that the Ko structure is two
counter-rotating opposite handed masses held
together by the weak interactions (since they are
counter-rotating). Possibly the π+ and π - particles
60
are of unequal mass, which would result in a K 2o
differing from a K2o.
The mass of the K2o we take as 974.2/2 = 487.1
electron masses. Very little is known about the weak
interaction except that its strength is many orders of
magnitude (possibly 5 to 7) less than the strength of
the electromagnetic force. Based on the difference
in the masses of the two Ko particles, we assume that
the strength as a function of separation distance has
two peaks and that the one at the smaller separation
distance is the lower strength one. Thus, the two
elementary matter particles making up the K2o are
bound by the shorter-range/ lower-strength portion
of the weak nuclear force.
The decay of K2o probably is simply shedding
mass from each of the two matter particles making
the K1o.

61
G. The Small Neutral Kaon, K1o, K 1o

From the last section we assume that the mass

of the K1o particle is 974.1 electron masses and that
the K1o consists of two counter-rotating elementary
matter particles. They would be bound by the weak
interaction at a larger distance from each other -
compared with the separation distance of the K2o.
Incidentally, during formation of the kaons, it is
imperative that the two opposite-handed matter
particles keep separated - otherwise they would
disintegrate into photons. The K 1o would be the
K1o with neutrino handedness exchanged.

62
H. The Eta, η

The eta, η, particle has a mass of 1074 electron

masses, zero charge, zero spin, and decays into two
photons. We assume that eta consists of two equal
mass matter particles, one right-handed and one
left-handed spinning in opposite directions. Each
particle will have its inertial loop. Both elementary
matter particles could be charged (oppositely) to
account for the higher mass than the kaons. The
radius of the inertial loop is
1074
rn = r = 537×5.45×10-20 = 2.93×10-17m
2 ei
(39)
i

The angular momentum radius is

 1.05 × 10 −34 × 137.1

rηam = =
2mv 2 × 537 × 9.11× 10 −31 × 3 × 10 8
(40)
=4.90×10 m -14

The decay is just the same as the πo particle

- except that the photons are more energetic.
Incidentally, the photon characteristics are

63
 E = mc2 = 537×9.11×10-31×(3×108)2=
440×10-11joules
(41)
hc 6 × 10 −34 × 3 × 10 8
= = = 1.8 × 10 −25 / λ
λ λ

Thus
1.8 × 10 −25
λ= =4.09×10-15m (42)
4.40 × 10 −11

This is a highly energetic gamma ray.

64
I. The Neutron, n

The neutron has a mass of 1838.63 (1838.63 -

1836.12 = 2.51 more than the proton), no charge, a
spin of 1/2, and decays by the formula

n → p + e- + ve (43)

Our guess is that the neutron consists of a high

speed electron with its center located at the center
of the proton plus an equal mass elementary matter
particle rotating side-by-side with the electron.
The electron has an angular momentum radius,
of 2.63 × 10-11 m, half the Bohr radius. The neutron
is formed by forcing the electron of a hydrogen atom
from its location at 5 times 10-11 m from the proton
down so that its center is at the proton, a distance
of 5 × 10-11 m. The spin then of the two particles,
i.e., the electron and the proton, are opposite which
gives zero angular momentum. Also, the charged
region of the electron orbit is 2.63×10-11m from the
proton. At this separation distance, the electrostatic
fields of both particles should be fully developed
Coulomb fields. Thus, the net charge at a distance
from the neutron will be zero. The imbalance of the
two fields would be the same as that for a hydrogen
atom. Thus, the gravitational field of the neutron

65
would be exactly the same as the hydrogen atom.
Forcing the electron down to encircle the
proton, presumably, requires the production of an
elementary matter particle made of the antineutrino
v e. Incidentally, some neutrons decay into a proton
and a photon. Is it possible that the elementary
matter particle was made of a neutrino so that the
electron, or part of the electron, and the added
matter particle were antiparticles to each other and
they disintegrated into a photon?
The mass of the newly manufactured particle
is assumed to be the same as the electron (with
added mass) 2.53/2 = 1.265 electron masses. The
new matter particle would rotate side-by-side to the
electron in opposite directions so they would be
bound by the weak nuclear force. Figure 12 shows
the proposed neutron.
e' e e, e' r = 2.63×10-11m

p p

Figure 12. Neutron

66
In this figure we’ve labeled this new particle e'.
It does not have the charge loop in its path. The
particle e' has the inertial loop and the angular
momentum loop. Its spin, of course, is 1/2 which is
the resulting spin of the neutron, since the proton
and electron have opposite spins.
Neutrons and protons bind by the proton
in the neutron bonding to the bare proton by the
strong nuclear force. The Coulomb negative field
produced by the electron reduces the Coulomb
repulsion of the two proton positive fields thus
preventing their separation.

67
J. Lambdas, Λo, Λ o

The lambda, Λo, particle has a mass of 2183

electron masses (2183-1836 = 347 electron masses
larger than the proton), has a spin of 1/2, neutral
charge, a lifetime of 2.51×10-10 sec, and decays by
the formula

Λo → p++π- (44)

We assume the structure of Λo is a proton with an

orbiting π -.
We assume the spins of the π - and proton are
opposite each other and that the angular momentum
of the orbiting pion is ħ/2.
The Λ o structure is the same as Λo with all
neutrino handedness changed.

68
K. The Positive Sigmas, Σ+, Σ +

The positive sigma, Σ+, has a mass of 2327.7,

spin is 1/2, charge is positive, decay time is 8.1×10-10
sec, and the decay formula is

Σ+ → n+π+ (45)

The sigma plus could simply be a positive pion

orbiting about the neutron. The pion would be held
by the negative electron orbiting about the proton
in the neutron. The spin of 1/2 might be due to the
π+ orbiting with a radius which produces an angular
momentum of ħ (that radius is on the order of 10-13m).
The Σ + (negative) is the Σ+ with neutrino
handedness change.

69
L. The Negative Sigmas, Σ-, Σ −

The negative sigma, Σ-, particle has a mass

slightly larger than the Σ+ (2343.3 - 2327.7 = 15.6
electron masses), spin is 1/2, negative charge, decay
time of 16×10-11s, double the Σ+ decay time, and
decays by the formula

Σ-→n+π- (46)

This decay indicates that the negative pion was

bound by the proton. The proton, being more
massive than the electron, acts more like a fixed
mass. Thus, the π - would be closer to the proton
than the π + is to the electron. Thus, the π - would
have a greater velocity, and greater mass than the π +
pion. The π - orbit possibly produces an angular
momentum of ħ which, opposite to the proton spin,
would give a net spin of 1/2. The Σ - particle is the
same as the Σ- with the change of handedness of
each elementary matter particle.

70
M. The Neutral Sigmas, Σ o, Σ o

The neutral sigma, Σ o, has a mass of 2333.7

(near midway between the Σ+ and Σ- particles), a
spin of 1/2, zero charge, a decay time of 10-20 sec,
with decay by the formula

Σ o→Λo+γ (47)

and a Λo particle is a proton plus a negative pion.

The simplest structure is a proton with a high speed
orbiting pion. Angular momentum could be ħ for
that orbit if this orbit were opposite the Λo spin then
the spin would be 1/2.
The Σo is similar to a hydrogen atom where
π - has the role of the electron orbiting the proton.
Furthermore, the Σo is in an excited state. When the
π - drops down to a lower state (i.e., orbiting about
the proton at a smaller radius) a photon is emitted.

71
N. The Charged Xis, Ξ-, Ξ -

The negative xi has a mass of 2585.5, spin 1/2,

negative charge, decay time of 1.75×10-10, with the
decay formula

Ξ- → Λo + π - (48)

The simplest assumption is that the Ξ- particle

consists of a proton with two negative pions orbiting
the proton. Possibly the two pions orbit in opposite
directions to produce a net spin of zero. Thus, the
Ξ particle then would have a spin of 1/2. The decay
is accomplished by emitting one negative pion
and having a proton with the other negative pion
orbiting it to produce a Λo particle. The Ξ - particle
would consist of an antiproton and two antipions.
The spin of the pions is due to their orbit and one
pion spin is opposite the proton's leaving a net spin
of 1/2.

72
O. The Neutral Xis, Ξ o, Ξ o

The neutral xi has a mass of 2573, spin 1/2,

zero charge, a decay time of 3×10-10 sec, and decays
by the formula

Ξ o → Λo + π o →p+ + π -+ π o (49)

The π - and the π o particles may be bound closely

by the strong nuclear force and they orbit as a close
pair to the proton.
The pions could be orbiting in directions
which balanced their angular momentum so that
the proton produces the net angular momentum of
ħ/2. The antiparticle of Ξ o is obtained by switching
handedness of its neutrinos.

73
P. The Omegas, Ω-, Ω -

The omega particle, Ω-, has a mass of 3276,

spin 3/2, negative charge, lifetime 1.5×10-10 sec, and
decays by the formula

Ω - → Ξo + π - → Λo + π o + π - → p+ + π o+ π -+ π - (50)

To produce a spin of 3/2, let the two π - particles

orbit the proton which is holding the π o closely.
The spin of 3/2 might be due to the charged pions
orbiting in opposite directions to give zero net
angular momentum and the neutral pion producing
angular momentum of ħ in the same direction as
the proton’s angular momentum. The Ω - particle
is obtained by switching handedness of all the Ω-
particles.

74
 IX. Masses of the Fundamental Particles

The mass of the brutino is 2.89×10-66 kg. This

is the mass lost by a photon as it traverses one
wavelength of distance.
The neutrino has a range of masses, at least
from 10-68 kg to 10-30 kg. There may be only several
different mass neutrinos. These discrete masses
possibly are due to resonances in the ether gas as
it flows from the sonic sphere to the core of the
neutrino.
The photon also has a wide range of mass
from the long wavelength radio waves to the short
wavelength gamma rays. The minimum mass may
be less than 10-40 kg (1026 brutinos) and may be
greater than 10-16 kg (1050 brutinos).
The proton is the unique particle for which a
neutrino, in a circular orbit, produces an angular
momentum of ħ/2. Its mass is 1.6726×10-27 kg or 6π5
= 1836.118109 times the electron mass.
The electron is made from a neutrino with
a mass of 9.11×10-31 kg. Our current best guess is
that one class of the discrete mass neutrinos has a
mass of 9.11×10-31 kg. In addition, we assume that
all the different classes of neutrinos are plentiful
throughout the universe. When the proton is
formed, the proton field finds an electron neutrino

75
and forms it into an electron and binds it by the
electrostatic force. An argument against this type
formation is that the proton mass is 6π5 times the
electron's mass - which implies that the mass ratio
is due simply to kinematic phenomena rather than
dynamic phenomena. The electron neutrino may
be the smallest neutrino. Based on the decay of
the muon we have the decay formula and electron
masses as

μ- → e- + νe + νu + ME
(51)
207 → 1 + 1 + 65 + 140

where ME is manifested by velocities of the decay

products. Each of the three decay particles which,
before decay, were all elementary matter particles
with spin of 1/2, must have two particles aligned
in one direction and one in the opposite direction.
The reason the muon mass is 20em is because the νu
has a mass of 65em.
The tauon decay and mass balance is

τ - → μ- + νu + ντ
(52)
1777 → 207 + 65 + 1504
which assumes that there is no kinetic energy of the

76
decay products. If there is kinetic energy the tau
neutrino would have a lower mass.
The masses of the remaining elementary
matter particles are indicated by the following table.

Table 2. Decay Formula and Masses of

Several Particles
π +→μ ++ νμ Σ° → Λ°+ γ
273 → 207 + 66 2334 → 2183 + 151
K +→ π + + π o + ME Ξ - → Λ°+ π - + ME
966.4 → 273 + 264 + 429 2586 → 2183 + 273 +130
Λo → p+ + π - + ME Ξ° → Λ°+ γ
2183 → 1836 + 273 + 74 2334 → 2183 + 151
Σ+ → n + π ++ ME Ω - → Ξ° + π - + ME
2328 →1839 + 273 +216 3276 → 2573 + 273 + 430

The foregoing structures proposed for

some of the fundamental particles are highly
conjectural. However, there are underlying basic
principles dictating the structures. For example,
first and foremost, all matter particles are made
up of elementary matter particles, i.e., single
orbiting neutrinos. All have spin 1/2. Much more
experimental data exists on decay products, etc.,
than we have used here. Using the guidelines we
have presented here along with the available decay
data could result in an accurate and comprehensive
description of the fundamental particles.

77
 X. What We Have Learned About the
Fundamental Particles

Every elementary matter particle at rest

consists of one, and only one, neutrino moving
(slowly) in a circle at a speed very slightly greater
than the speed of light. The neutrino can be left-
or right-handed and can have a mass equal to the
proton mass or less than the proton mass. Each
elementary matter particle has an almost spherically
symmetric inflow of gaseous ether particles at the
rate of 0.00476 kg/sec (from a background whose
density is 4×1017kg/m3 and whose energy is 1039
joules per cubic meter). The outflow is in two fine
(10-25m diameter) colinear streams of particles - a
forward stream at velocity v r and an aft stream at v m.
The radial inflow is condensed, circulates around
the propagation vector, turns and approximately
half flows forward while the remainder flows aft.
One of the principal effects of this flow is to produce
angular momentum of ħ/2 about the propagation
axis for every neutrino whether it is translating or
rotating as an elementary matter particle. Thus,
each piece of matter in the universe has an angular
momentum of nħ/2, where n is a positive integer
and can be zero when there is an even number of
elementary matter particles and where the spin

78
vectors of pairs have opposing directions.
The reason the proton is the largest elementary
matter particle is that the thrust of all neutrinos
is the same (1.43 meganewtons) and a mass
larger than the proton would produce an angular
momentum greater than ħ/2, which is impossible.
For elementary matter particles with mass less
than the proton, the angular momentum of ħ/2 is
provided by the neutrino taking a larger radius loop
in addition to the inertial loop - where the large
radius loop times the mass times the velocity is ħ/2.
Every elementary matter particle produces an
electrostatic field. The field is due to the circulating
outflow from the forward end of the neutrino at
velocity v r followed by the aft flow at velocity v m.
The fields are characterized by their fine structure
which is made up of what we call wavespaces, whose
three dimensions are equal the orbital radius of the
neutrino making the elementary matter particle.
Each wavespace has a circulating flow which is
directed radially from the particle at the velocity of
light, which is slightly less than the velocity of the
neutrino.
The fine structure of the proton is the Coulomb
field. When the proton manufactures the electron
it places an electrostatic loop in the electron’s path
which produces a field which mimics the Coulomb

79
field. Thus, the electron has its inertial loop (which,
incidentally, is the smallest loop and smallest
elementary matter particle possible), its next
larger loop (the electrostatic loop), and the final
loop which is the angular momentum loop. The
electrostatic loop is optional for any matter particle
except the proton. In the proton the inertial loop,
the electrostatic loop, and the angular momentum
loops are the same.
The electron and the proton are the only two
elementary particles known that are stable. They
are practically indestructible.
In proton-proton collision experiments at
energies around 6 Bev an antiproton is formed
in about 1 in 1011 collisions. See page 15 of Hill
[2]. Our thinking is that both protons survive the
collision and that the antiproton was made from the
photon mass of the high velocity proton. All the
fundamental matter particles of physics, beyond
the electron and proton, are made up of two, or
more, elementary matter particles. The leptons,
beyond the electrons, are made up of more than
one elementary matter particle since in their decay
there are neutrinos and antineutrinos. To produce
a spin of 1/2 requires an odd number of particles,
and, since one elementary matter particle is ruled
out by the neutrino antineutrino decay, three or

80
more elementary matter particles are required.
Apparently three elementary particles suffice for the
muon and tauon. With these, two of the particle’s
spin vectors are opposed, making the net spin equal
to 1/2.
The mesons are probably made of two
elementary matter particles with spin of 1/2 each
directed opposite each other. The baryons are either
a bare proton or a proton with one, or more, orbiting
elementary matter particles.

81
 XI. The Five Forces of Nature

The strongest force in nature is the thrust that

propels the neutrino through the dense ether. Its
value is 1.43 meganewtons. The second strongest
force is the force holding nucleons together. Its
value is 267 newtons, some four orders less than
the neutrino thrust. Next is the electromagnetic
force. Its magnitude is 1/137.1 times the strong
nuclear force and, thus, 1/106 times the strength of
the neutrino thrust. The force whose strength is
next lower is the force involved in nuclear decay.
It is called the weak nuclear force and it is six
orders of magnitude less than the electromagnetic
force, or 12 orders of magnitude smaller than the
neutrino thrust. Finally, the fifth force is the force
of gravitation, which is 38 orders of magnitude less
than the electromagnetic force - or 44 orders of
magnitude less than the neutrino thrust.
The neutrino thrust drives a solid ball of
mass with a diameter of 10-25 meters through a
background gas whose density is ten trillion times
that of lead. The neutrino is a self-consistent flow
of background ether particles which consists of
aligning background particles and squeezing them
together so that they are all moving parallel to each
other without changing their energy. The squeezing

82
together operation produces the meganewton thrust
and its velocity is v r-v m, where v r is the RMS velocity
of the background gas and v m is the mean velocity.
This thrust is the source of all usable energy in the
universe.
The primary importance of the neutrino
thrust is for its role in holding matter together. All
matter in the universe is made of neutrinos orbiting
in circular paths (when at rest) and in plane spiral
paths when translating. The neutrino thrust
balances its centrifugal force as it takes its orbital
path. Neutrinos are made with varying masses and
are right-handed or left-handed. The light mass
neutrinos making matter will have small radii and
massive ones will have large radii.
All orbiting neutrinos produce an electrostatic
field as a result of their output, during orbit, of a flow
at velocity v r followed by a flow at v m, which is 8%
less than the flow at velocity v r. The field produced
is characterized by three-dimensional waves whose
three dimensions are equal to the orbital radius of
the orbiting neutrino producing the field. We call
these three-dimensional spaces wavespaces. They
travel at the velocity of light which is very slightly
less than v r-v m and in radial directions from the
emitting atom. (The emission in the two output
streams at velocities v r and v m is due to the absorption

83
of background gas by the neutrino.) All matter is
strictly due to the proton and its orbital radius is
10-16 m. Its wavespaces, thus, are 10-16 m by 10-16
m by 10-16 m and its electrostatic field is called the
Coulomb field. The proton is the largest elementary
matter particle.
The strong nuclear force is generated by the
interaction of two equal mass neutrinos rotating
side-by-side in the same direction and in phase. The
most prevalent occurrence of the strong nuclear
force is between the protons in nucleons. Every
nucleon pair has two protons and the proton-
proton binding holds them together. The binding is
a result of the Bernoulli static pressure reduction as
the background gas flows into the proton neutrinos.
The increase in background density limits the
closeness of the two nuclei.
The weak nuclear force is generated between
two elementary matter particles. The neutrinos
could be out-of-phase, of different size, of different
rotational directions and still develop some force. It
appears, from our analyses of the elementary matter
particles (in this book), that the weak nuclear force
occurs between elementary particles when they
rotate side-by-side in opposite directions.
The electromagnetic force is developed
between two matter particles which are separated by

84
a distance large enough for the matter particle field
to act like a spherically symmetric breathing sphere.
The Coulomb electromagnetic field is generated by
the proton with its 10-16 m orbit. Polarity is due to
the handedness of the orbiting neutrino.
The gravitational field is produced by two
oppositely directed electrostatic fields. This is
accomplished by the electrostatic fields of the
electron orbiting about the electrostatic field of the
proton with an amplitude equal to the radius of the
brutino.

85
 XII. Symmetry in Physics

We now consider symmetries in physical

theory. Let us discuss the TCP theorem. The three
letters TCP stand for three hypothetical operations:
T, time reversal; P, space reversal (which is
approximately equivalent to taking a mirror image
of space, and is called the parity operation); and
C, charge conjugation, the technical name for
interchanging particles and antiparticles.
We have just shown that charge conjugation
and parity conservation are the same thing since
all matter (and antimatter) are constructed only of
neutrinos and antineutrinos. Parity is conserved
since each elementary matter or antimatter particle
is made of objects which are mirror images of each
other. Thus, C and P are always conserved.
Time reversal just does not happen - even
though it is theoretically possible. Time is simply
a displacement. No displacement can be exactly
reversed. Let us consider probably the simplest event
imaginable. A brutino, A, is translating at exactly
109 meters per second, exactly parallel to the x-axis
in Figure 13. Since time is simply a displacement,
then for time to reverse, in this case, it is necessary
that after collision the speed of A remain exactly at
v and the direction be exactly reversed.

86
 y
A 109m/s B
v
v

a b

z x

Figure 13. Brutino A Moving Parallel to x

We try to reverse A with a collision from particle

B. Let us assume the speed of B, i.e., v, is exactly
the same as the velocity v of A and the direction
of B is exactly parallel to x. Further, assume the
masses are exactly the same and both particles are
perfectly elastic. (We’ve made a lot of impossible
assumptions.) In order for A to return in its original
path, distance b must be exactly equal to a. The
probability of b being exactly equal to a is zero, even
though we know it is theoretically possible.
A gross type of time reversal could occur when
organic systems are completely understood. It might
be possible to take an old monkey and reverse all
the aging processes and return it to the sperm and
egg. However, the detailed locations of the brutinos
in a super microscope a microsecond after reversing

87
the body would never be like it was a microsecond
before starting the reversal. An additional thought:
the monkey after one year of reversing would look
like she did two years before.
Time reversal of a sort occurs, according to the
kinetic particle theory of the universe. The universe
began as a homogeneous Maxwell-Boltzmann gas.
Condensations of the gas, caused by an entropy-
reducing mechanism at the molecular size level,
produced neutrinos. The neutrinos produced
atoms with gravitational fields. Gravitation
organized matter (made stars, earth, bacteria,
plants, animals). Stars continually grow and finally
get so large that they explode, converting some
matter back to neutrinos but most of the results of
the explosions are matter of varying sizes from stars
down to space dust and individual atoms. Thus, we
see that the matter in the universe goes through a
long cycle (possibly much greater than 1010 years).
It is not clear what the cycle is for neutrinos. They
presumably live for more than 1010 years. It is not
clear whether or not the neutrino population goes
through a cycle.

88
 XIII. The Supposed Violation of Parity

With classical (Newtonian) theory, for

anything which occurs, a mirror image can occur.
This fact is known as the conservation of parity.
Recently (1956), T. H. Lee and C. D. Yang claimed
to have found theoretical evidence that parity is not
always conserved and later that year (December,
1956) a group led by Ms. C. D. Wu and Ms. E. Ambler
performed an experiment which confirmed the Lee
and Yang prediction. The world physics community
accepted that parity was not conserved. If this were
true then the world is not a classical mechanics world
as put forth in the book The Mechanical Theory of
Everything. See Brown [3]. In the following pages
we will show the flaw in the argument that cobalt60
decay violates the conservation of parity.
Cobalt60 is a radioisotope of cobalt which emits
electrons. The decay is by the weak interaction.
According to Lee and Yang’s theoretical analysis, they
predict that more electrons will be emitted opposite
the spin vector than in the spin vector direction.
Figure 14 shows a cobalt60 atom, the nuclear spin
vector (directed downward) and the current which
consists of flowing electrons. The rotational vector
for the current is upward, opposite the nuclear
spin direction. Wu and Ambler performed such an

89
experiment with cobalt60 and determined that more
decay electrons were flowing up than down. This
experiment verified the Lee and Yang prediction.
The emission of decay electrons is in the direction
of the right hand thumb when the fingers are in the
direction of the flowing currents.
Figure 15 shows a mirror image of the
presumed current (flowing clockwise when viewed
from the top, i.e., from the positive end of the
z-axis). The spin axis shown in Figure 14 is not
shown since it is not a physical entity and therefore
would not appear in a mirror image. Since the
presumed current vector is downward, the emitted
electrons would go downward and not be a mirror
image of Figure 14.
y
Electrons
e-
Current
e-

spin vector
Co60
atom
x

Figure 14. Cobalt60 Experiment Showing Decay

Electrons Emitted Opposite Nuclear Spin Direction

90
 y'
Current
e-

Co60
e- atom
Electrons
x'

z'

Figure 15. Presumed Mirror Image of Cobalt60

Experiment Showing Mirror Image of Current
Flowing Counterclockwise Looking Down

Physicists all over the world believed this

experiment proved that the parity is not always
conserved. This would be a death knell to the
Newtonian world of physics.
A mirror image of the cobalt60 experiment
has never been performed, for obvious practical
reasons. Actually, such an experiment has not
been thought out or the physics community would
realize the flaw in the interpretation of the actual
cobalt60 experiments. First, and foremost, it is not
conceivable that the mirror image of an electron

91
is also an electron. The electron would have to be
symmetric in order for its image to be an electron.
It is hard to conceive of a particle model which
is symmetric and has polarity. With the kinetic
particle theory of physics, an antiparticle of a
particle is simply the mirror image. All matter is
made of neutrinos with handedness. Antiparticles
are obtained from particles simply by changing
the handedness. Of course, the mirror image of a
neutrino changes the handedness. Thus, the mirror
image of an electron is a positron.
With all this discussion we now show a
theoretical experiment with a mirror image of a
cobalt60 atom, which we believe is an anticobalt60
atom. Figure 16 shows the current, which is the
flow of positrons and has the direction of the
mirror image of the current in Figure 14. The
decay particles are the mirror image of the decay
shown in Figure 14. They are positrons and are
directed opposite the spin vector, which we show.
The flaw in the interpretation of the cobalt60
experiment is that the mirror image of an electron
is not an electron but a positron. Thus, we conclude
that the cobalt60 experiment did not violate parity.

92
 y'
e+
Current e+

Co60
spin vector atom
x'

z'

Figure 16. Actual Anti-cobalt60 Experiment

Showing Decay Positrons Emitted Opposite
Nuclear Spin Direction

93
 XIV. Conclusions

There are 42 elementary particles of physics.

Eight of these particles have velocities equal to or
greater than the speed of light. The remaining 34
are matter particles. The matter particles consist
of one, or more, elementary matter particles. An
elementary matter particle is a neutrino orbiting in
a circle at a speed slightly greater than the speed
of light. The structures of the eight non-matter
particles and the six matter particles (the proton,
the electron, the neutron, and their antiparticles)
have been derived in great detail. Their analysis is
presented in the Mechanical Theory of Everything.
See Brown [3].
The 34 matter particles consist of one, or more,
elementary particles. The proton and the electron
(and their antiparticles), i.e., four matter particles,
consist of a single elementary particle. They are
practically indestructible - their lifetimes are
considered to be unlimited. All 30 of the remaining
matter particles consist of two, or three, elementary
particles and, isolated, every one is unstable and
decays.
Each elementary matter particle consists of
a circularly orbiting neutrino which travels at a
speed very slightly greater than the speed of light.

94
The neutrino thrust, 1.43 meganewtons, is directed
radially inward to balance the centrifugal force.
Neutrinos occur in varying masses so elementary
matter particles have varying masses and varying
radii.
The neutrino absorbs 2.35×10-3 kg/s of ether
particles homogeneously through the neutrino-
defining sonic sphere (with radius rc = 7.5 × 10-16m).
These particles are discharged in two very fine
streams (10-25m diameter), one forward at velocity
v r (the ether background RMS speed) and one aft
at velocity v m (the ether background mean speed).
This inflow (producing an angular momentum
about the translational axis with a magnitude ħ/2)
and the two-fine-stream outflow produce the field
involved in the interaction of matter particles.
The inflow of background particles produces
an attractive potential. The outflow at velocity
v r forward and velocity v m aft produces (at some
distance from the orbiting neutrino) an electrostatic
field which consists of a field of three-dimensional
wavespaces. These wavespaces translate radially
from the elementary matter particle at the velocity
of light, which is slightly less than the speed of the
neutrino. The wavespace dimensions are equal
the elementary particle orbital radii. The proton
wavespaces are 10-16 m by 10-16 m by 10-16 m and they

95
produce the Coulomb electrostatic field.
The elementary particles have spin, have
charge, and inertia which must be balanced. There
are, at most, three different radii concerned with
each matter particle:

1. The radius which balances the inertial

force, r i
2. The radius which produces the
electrostatic field, res
3. The radius which produces the required
spin, ram

The proton radius balancing inertia is 10-16 m.

The orbiting neutrino at this radius produces the
electrostatic field fine structure. Thus, the inertial
radius satisfies the inertial balance and the Coulomb
field requirement. The angular momentum of the
orbiting neutrino is ħ/2 which satisfies the third
requirement of all elementary matter particles. All
three radii requirements are met by the single loop
of the proton.
The requirement that all neutrinos can
produce only one flow rate and, thus, only one value
of angular momentum, ħ/2, means that the proton
is the maximum mass that an elementary (single
neutrino) matter particle can have. A basic particle

96
of physics (i.e., an elementary matter particle)
more massive than the proton cannot occur. Thus,
we know the baryons, other than the proton and
antiproton, consist of more than one elementary
matter particle.
Let us summarize how the 30 unstable
particles interact. Each one is held together by the
primary force of the universe, i.e., the neutrino self-
generated thrust of 1.43 meganewtons (i.e., by a self-
consistent flow). The strongest interaction of two
elementary matter particles occurs when two equal
mass elementary matter particles rotate side-by-side
in parallel planes at their closest possible separation
distance - and in the same rotational direction.
This force is the strong nuclear force. The force is
produced by the Bernoulli effect of static pressure
reduction due to the flows from the background
ether into each neutrino. The separation distance
of the two neutrinos occurs when the increasing
force due to reduced separation balances the force
reduction due to increased density. The maximum
force is 267 Newtons and it occurs for the proton-
proton interactions. Elementary matter particles
of lower mass will generate smaller fine structure
wavespaces. The velocity of the wavespaces for all
elementary matter particles will always be the speed
of light.

97
 All the fundamental matter particles must
satisfy the inertial requirement, the charge
requirement (all elementary matter particles are
charged), and the spin requirement. The leptons
have multi-looped paths. Each has an inertial loop,
an electrostatic loop (on one of the elementary
matter particles of the three matter particles of
muon and tauon), and a large angular momentum
loop. All leptons are charged. The mesons have zero
spin, which is accomplished by having two particles
each producing 1/2 spin, but in opposite directions.
Every baryon has a proton in its structure. Baryons
heavier than the proton have masses orbiting the
proton. The proton is the largest elementary particle
since angular momentum cannot exceed ħ/2. The
measured angular momentum of all neutrinos is
due to the change of flow direction of all neutrinos,
no matter what their mass is. The contribution to
the angular momentum of the core is so small it has
never been measured. It is 20 orders of magnitude
less than the angular momentum due to redirecting
the flow.
The analysis here examines the TCP theorem.
Time is not reversible. It is just displacement which
can never be exactly reversed. We say the time is
one day, 1/86,400th of a day, one year, etc. Charge
conjunction is satisfied by all matter since each

98
elementary matter particle is made of a neutrino
or an antineutrino. Its antiparticle is made of an
antineutrino or a neutrino. Antiparticles are made
from matter by just exchanging neutrino twist.
Parity is always conserved since the neutrinos are
the mirror images of the antineutrinos. The analysis
of Lee and Yang showed that cobalt60, and other
particles decaying by the weak nuclear force, had
non-symmetric emissions of particles. The physics
community assumed this mechanism violates parity
(i.e., the mirror image would be different from the
actual decay). Their reasoning was false, at least in
the case of cobalt60, since it was not realized that the
mirror image of an electron is a positron.

99
 XV. References

1. Ford, Kenneth W. The World of Elementary

Particles. Blaisdell Publishing Company. Waltham,
MA. 1963.
2. Hill, R. D. Tracking Down Particles. W. A.
Benjamin, Inc. New York, NY. 1963.
3. Brown, Joseph M. The Mechanical Theory
of Everything. ISBN: 978-0-9712944-9-3. Basic
Research Press. Starkville, MS. 2015.
4. Brown, Joseph M. Principles of Science. ISBN: 978-
0-9626768-0-2. Basic Research Press. Starkville,
MS. 1991.
5. Adair, Robert K. Concepts in Physics. Academic
Press. NY. 1969.

100
 Index

A electrostatic force 76
angular momentum 43, 44, 46 elementary matter particles 12, 15,
antimatter 86 47, 56, 57, 58, 60, 61, 63, 76, 77,
antiproton 72, 80, 97 78, 79, 80, 81, 84, 94, 96, 97, 98
ellipse 39
elliptic 39
B entropy 32, 88
Bohr 46 eta 14, 63
breathing spheres 19 explosions 88
Brown 3, 4, 12, 43, 89, 94, 100
brutino 12, 17, 18, 19, 75, 85, 86
F
fifth force 82
C fine structure 46
center of mass 42 Five Forces 8, 82
compression chamber 22, 23 Ford 12, 60, 100
condensations 20 fundamental matter particles 80, 98
critical 23, 25, 29, 31
cycle 88 G
gaseous ether 21, 78
D geometry 42
decay 15, 34, 47, 59, 60, 61, 63, 66, gravitation 17, 19, 82
69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 76, 77, 80, 82, gravitational field 19, 65, 85
89, 90, 92, 99 gravity 17
displacement 86, 98 group 11, 89
groups 38
E
earth 88 H
electromagnetic force 61, 82, 84 hard 92
electron 12, 13, 19, 39, 41, 42, 43, Hill 12, 60, 80, 100
44, 45, 46, 47, 52, 54, 55, 57, 60, homogeneous 88
61, 62, 63, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, hydrogen 19, 60, 65, 66, 71
71, 75, 76, 79, 80, 85, 91, 92,
94, 99 K
electrostatic 19, 37, 43, 44, 45, 46, kaon 14, 58, 60
48, 50, 53, 54, 55, 58, 65, 76, 79, kinetic energy 76, 77
80, 83, 84, 85, 95, 96, 98
electrostatic field 45, 46

101
L S
lambda 14, 68 second law of thermodynamics 32
law 32 sigma 14, 69, 70, 71
lifetime 13, 52, 54, 57, 58, 68, 74 sonic sphere 20, 25, 29, 31, 36, 44,
loop 43, 44, 45, 46 75, 95
source 83
speed of sound 20, 22
M spin 12, 15, 44, 47, 48, 52, 54, 57,
Maxwell 88 58, 60, 63, 65, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71,
Maxwell-Boltzmann 88 72, 73, 74, 76, 77, 78, 80, 81, 89,
mean free path 18, 22, 29, 31 90, 92, 96, 98
mean speed 24, 27, 95 stable 60, 80
microrocket 21, 23, 24, 25, 28 stars 88
string 39
muon 13, 15, 47, 48, 49, 52, 54, 76,
strong nuclear force 54, 67, 73, 84,
98 97
subsonic 22, 23
N Symmetry 8, 86
neutron 14, 65, 66, 67, 69, 94
Newtonian 11, 89, 91 T
tauon 13, 15, 76, 98
O TCP theorem 86, 98
omega 14, 74 think 32, 35
thinking 80
thrust 20, 24, 34, 43, 45, 79, 82, 83,
P 95, 97
Patterson 5
photon mass 39, 42, 80
pion 14, 57, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 74 U
Planck 17 United States 4
plane spiral paths 83 usable energy 32, 83
plus 41, 65, 69, 71
positive integer 78 W
pump 21, 23, 24, 25, 27, 28, 29 weak nuclear force 15, 55, 59, 61,
82, 84, 99
R
radiation 17 X
reference 12, 43 xi 14, 72, 73
reverse aging 86, 87
RMS speed 24, 95
Z
zero 15, 54, 57, 58, 60, 63, 65, 71,
72, 73, 74, 78, 87, 98

102
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