Department of Chemistry

General Chemistry I
General Chemistry for Health Sciences
CHEM 10231101 and 10231114

Chapter 2
Atoms, Ions, and Molecules

Dr. Ismail Badran

Fall, 2023/2024
 Outline
➢ 2.2 The Structure of the Atom **
➢ 2.3 Atomic Number, Mass Number, and
Isotopes
➢ 2.4 The Periodic Table
➢ 2.5 Molecules and Ions
➢ 2.6 Chemical Formulas
➢ 2.7 Naming Compounds

** Not required for CHJEM 114

2
 Warning

This supplementary material should not be construed as a substitute for

the prescribed textbook or serve as a comprehensive course reference.
The primary and recommended reference for this course is:

.‫هذا المواد التكميلية ال تستبدل بأي شكل من األشكال الكتاب المقرر أو تمثل مرجعا لهذا المساق‬
:‫المرجع الرئيسي والمستحسن لهذه الدورة هو كتاب الكيمياء بالعنوان التالي‬

Title: Chemistry Authors: Jason Overby & Raymond Chang Edition: 14th
Edition

3
2.2 The Structure of the Atom
Dalton’s Atomic Theory (1808)
1. Elements are composed of extremely small particles called
atoms.

2. All atoms of a given element are identical, having the same size,
mass and chemical properties. The atoms of one element are
different from the atoms of all other elements.

3. Compounds are composed of atoms of more than one element.

In any compound, the ratio of the numbers of atoms of any two
of the elements present is either an integer or a simple fraction.

4. A chemical reaction involves only the separation, combination,

or rearrangement of atoms; it does not result in their creation or
destruction.

2-4
2.2 The Structure of the Atom
Dalton’s Atomic Theory (1808)

Law of Multiple Proportions

2-5
2.2 The Structure of the Atom
Law of Conservation of Mass

16 X + 8Y → 8 X 2Y

2-6
2.2 The Structure of the Atom
Cathode Ray Tube (1 of 2)

J.J. Thomson, measured mass/charge of e−

(1906 Nobel Prize in Physics)
2-7
2.2 The Structure of the Atom
Cathode Ray Tube (2 of 2)

2-8
2.2 The Structure of the Atom
Millikan’s Experiment

Measured mass of e−
(1923 Nobel Prize in Physics)

e − charge = − 1.60  10−19 C

Thompson's charge mass of e − = − 1.76  108 C g
e − mass = 9.10  10−28 g

2-9
2.2 The Structure of the Atom
Thomson’s Model

2-10
2.2 The Structure of the Atom
Rutherford’s Experiment
(1908 Nobel Prize in Chemistry)

 particle velocity ~ 1.4 107 m s

( ~ 5 % speed of light )
1. atoms positive charge is concentrated in the nucleus
2. proton (p) has opposite (+) charge of electron (−)
3. mass of p is 1840 × mass of e − (1.67 10−24 g )

2-11
2.2 The Structure of the Atom
Rutherford’s Experiment

atomic radius ~ 100 pm = 110 −10

nuclear radius ~ 5  10−3 pm = 5  10−15 m

“If the atom is the Houston Astrodome, then

the nucleus is a marble on the 50-yard line.”

2-12
2.2 The Structure of the Atom
Chadwick’s Experiment

H atoms: 1 p; He atoms: 2 p
mass He/mass H should = 2
measured mass He/mass H = 4

 + 9 Be → 1n + 12C + energy

neutron (n) is neutral (charge = 0)

n mass ~ p mass = 1.67 10−24 g
2-13
https://www.youtube.com/wat
ch?v=o-3I1JGW-Ck

14
https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/
build-an-atom/latest/build-an-
atom_en.html

15
2.3 Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Isotopes

➢Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in nucleus

➢Mass number (A) = number of protons + number of neutrons
= atomic number (Z) + number of neutrons
➢Protons and neutrons are collectively called nucleons.

16
2.3 Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Isotopes
Properties of Subatomic Particles
Table 2.1 Mass and Charge of Subatomic Particles
Coulomb Charge unit
Particle Mass ( g ) Charge Charge
Electron* 9.10938  10− 28 − 1.6022  10− 19 −1

Proton 1.67262  10− 24 + 1.6022  10− 19 +1

Neutron 1.67493  10− 24 0 0
*More refined measurements have given us a more accurate value of an electron's mass than Millikan's.

mass p  mass n  1840  mass e −

2-17
2.3 Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Isotopes

18
2.3 Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Isotopes

➢Isotopes are atoms of the same element (X) with different

numbers of neutrons in their nuclei
Isotopes of Hydrogen

Protium Deuterium Tritium

19
2.3 Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Isotopes
➢ Major Isotopes of Uranium

235 238
U U
92 92
A 235 A 238
Z 92 Z 92

Number of 92 Number of 92
protons protons
Number of 143 = (235-92) Number of 146 = (238-92)
neutrons neutrons

20
21
2.4 The Periodic Table

➢ Periodic table is a chart in which elements having similar chemical and

physical properties are grouped together
▪ the elements are arranged by atomic number.
There are 3 categories of elements (more details in chapter 8)
Metals: are good conductors of heat and electricity,
Nonmetals: are usually poor conductors of heat and electricity,
Metalloids: have properties that are intermediate between those of
metals and nonmetals.

22
 23

Noble Gas
Halogen
The Modern Periodic Table

Group
Period
Alkaline earth metals
Alkali Metal
Which of the following is not the common
name of a group of elements in the Periodic
Table?
A) alkali metals
B) transition metals
C) halogens
D) noble gases
E) alkaline earth metals

24
2.5 Molecules and Ions
➢Only the noble gases (Group 8A) exist in nature as single atoms
(called monatomic ).
➢Most matter is composed of molecules or ions.
➢A molecule is made of two or more atoms in a definite
arrangement held together by chemical forces (i.e. bond).

H2 H2O NH3 CH4

25
2.5 Molecules and Ions

➢A diatomic molecule contains only two atoms:

H2, N2, O2, Br2, HCl, CO

diatomic elements

➢A polyatomic molecule contains more than two atoms:

O3, H2O, NH3, CH4

26
2.5 Molecules and Ions
➢ An ion is an atom, or group of atoms, that has a net positive (cation) or
negative (anion) charge.
▪ Cations are formed when atoms (or molecules) lose one or more electrons.

11 protons 11 protons
Na 11 electrons Na+ 10 electrons

▪ Anions are formed when atoms (or molecules) gain one or more
electrons.
35 17 protons 17 protons
17Cl Cl 17 electrons Cl- 18 electrons

27
2.5 Molecules and Ions

➢A monatomic ion contains only one atom:

Na+, Cl-, Ca2+, O2-, Al3+, N3-
➢A polyatomic ion contains more than one atom:

OH-, CN-, NH4+, NO3-

28
2.5 Molecules and Ions

The species Hg22+ is an example of

A) a monoatomic cation.
B) a polyatomic cation.
C) a monoatomic anion.
D) a polyatomic anion.
E) a polyatomic metal.

29
 Common Ions Shown on the Periodic Table

Group #

No. of
Valence e.s
Common
ions

30
Common Ions Shown on the Periodic Table

31
2.6 Chemical Formulas

➢Chemical formulas are used to express the composition of

molecules and ionic compounds in terms of chemical symbols
(elements and ratios – e.g. H2O, O2, SO42-).
➢There are two types of formulas:
▪ molecular formulas and
▪ empirical formulas.

32
2.6 Chemical Formulas

➢ Molecular formulas show the exact number of atoms of each element in the
smallest unit of a substance.
➢ Empirical formulas show the simplest whole-number ratio of the atoms in a
substance. Empirical formulas are determined experimentally.

Q: Is there any relation between the two formulas?

MF = n x EF (n=1, 2, 3, etc..)
https://socratic.org/questions/what-is-the-empirical-formula-of-melamine

33
Different ways to represent molecules

34
35
36
2.6 Chemical Formulas

Covalent (Molecular) Inorganic compounds

Compounds
• Nonmetal + nonmetal can be divided into 3 categories:
• Or, Nonmetal + Hydrogen
• Organic compounds, contain
1. Ionic compounds
carbon (usually in combination cation + anion
with H, O, N, S). 2. Acids and bases, and
• All other compounds are
classified as inorganic
3. Hydrates
compounds.

37
2.6 Chemical Formulas

➢Formula of Ionic Compounds

▪ Ionic compounds consist of a combination of cations and anions.
▪ The formula is usually the same as the empirical formula.
▪ The sum of the charges on the cation(s) and anion(s) in each formula
unit must equal zero.

38
2.6 Chemical Formulas
The ionic compound NaCl

(a) Structure of solid NaCl. (b) In reality, cations are in contact with anions.
(c) NaCl crystal

39 39
 How do ionic compounds form?

The most reactive metals (green) and the most reactive

nonmetals (blue) combine to form ionic compounds.

40
2.6 Chemical Formulas
Formulas of Ionic Compounds
• Write the formula of magnesium nitride,
containing the Mg2+ and N3− ions.

When magnesium burns in air, it forms both

• This is the Crossover Method magnesium oxide and magnesium nitride.

41
42
2.7 Naming Chemical Compounds

Why do we need a system to name

chemical compounds?
Nomenclature means naming of chemical
compounds
How to name chemical compounds?
Chemical compounds are usually divided
into two major categories
ionic compounds.
Molecular (covalent) compounds.

43
2.7 Naming Chemical Compounds
1. Ionic compounds
➢Ionic compounds are made of charged ions that are held
together by a strong electrostatic force [two different
elements are involved: metal (+) and nonmetal (-)].
➢Most ionic compounds are binary compounds (two different
elements - e.g. NaCl, KCl, NaI)
➢There are also ternary ionic compounds (i.e. three elements –
e.g. KOH, LiOH, NaOH)

44
2.7 Naming Chemical Compounds

➢Types of Binary Ionic compounds

i. Type I ionic compounds: made of two elements (the charge of the
metal is fixed)
• Metals of this type include: groups 1A, 2A; Al, Ga and In from group 3A, as
well as elements Zn, Cd and Ag from transition metals.

1.1. Naming of Type I Ionic Compounds

Compound name = Name of cation + Root of anion and suffix “ – ide”

45
2.7 Naming Chemical Compounds
Type I ionic compounds

Zn2+

Ag+ Cd2+

46
2.7 Naming Chemical Compounds

47
2.7 Naming Chemical Compounds

48
2.7 Naming Chemical Compounds

➢Examples of Type I binary ionic compounds (see periodic table):

BaCl2 barium chloride
AlCl3 aluminum chloride
K2O potassium oxide
Mg(OH)2 magnesium hydroxide
KNO3 potassium nitrate

49
2.7 Naming Chemical Compounds
1.2. Type II Binary Ionic Compounds
ii. Type II binary ionic compounds are exactly same as Type I binary ionic
compounds, but the metal can have multiple charges (transition metals),
examples:
Fe+2, Fe+3
Mn+2, Mn+3, Mn+4
Cu+, Cu+2
* All metals (except type I binary ionic compounds) form type II compounds.
Charge of cation in Roman Root of anion +
Compound name = Name of cation + +
Numeral placed in parenthesis suffix “ – ide”

The charge on the cation is determined based on the type of anion and subscripts.

50
2.7 Naming Chemical Compounds

http://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu/@api/deki/files/1223/Periodic_Table_(WikiCommons).jpg?size=bestfit&width=720&height=414&revision=1
51
2.7 Naming Chemical Compounds
Name the following compounds (see periodic table):
FeCl2 iron(II) chloride
FeCl3 iron(III) chloride
MnO Manganese(II) oxide
Mn2O3 Manganese(III) oxide
MnO2 Manganese(IV) oxide
Cu(NO3)2 Cupper(II) nitrate
KH2PO4 Potasium dihydrogen phosphate
NH4ClO3 Ammonium chlorate

52
2.7 Naming Chemical Compounds

What is the name of Cr2(Cr2O7)3?

A) chromium (II) dichromate
B) chromium (II) trichromate
C) chromium (III) heptoxide
D) chromium (III) heptaoxide
E) chromium (III) dichromate

53
54
55
2.7 Naming Chemical Compounds
2. Molecular Compounds
➢ Molecular compounds are composed of elements held together by
covalent bonds (shared pairs of electrons). They are made up of only
nonmetals.
▪ Also referred to as Type III binary compounds.
Examples: H2O, NH3, CH4
Prefix + Name of 1st Prefix + Base name of 2nd
Compound name = +
element element + suffix “ – ide”

Use Greek prefixes for number of atoms: mono, di, tri, tetra, penta, hexa, hepta,
octa, nona, deca.

56
2.7 Naming Chemical Compounds

➢ Remember:
▪ The prefix “mono-” may be omitted for the first element.
Example: PCl3 is named phosphorus trichloride, not monophosphorus
trichloride.
▪ For oxides, the ending “a” in the prefix is sometimes omitted. For
example, N2O4 may be called dinitrogen tetroxide rather than
dinitrogen tetraoxide.

57
 Name the following molecular compounds
HI hydrogen iodide

NF3 nitrogen trifluoride

SO2 sulfur dioxide

N2Cl4 dinitrogen tetrachloride

NO2 nitrogen dioxide

N2O dinitrogen monoxide

58
▪ Exceptions to the use of Greek prefixes are molecular compounds containing
hydrogen.
▪ Called either by their common (nonsystematic) names or by names that do not
specifically indicate the number of H atoms present:

59
60
61
2.7 Naming Chemical Compounds

3. Acids and Bases

➢ An acid is a substance that yields hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in

water.
➢ When a substance is dissolved in water, it is referred to as an aqueous
solution (aq, written after the formula of the compound, e.g. HCl(aq)).
➢ Formulas for acids contain one or more H atoms and an anionic group.

62
2.7 Naming Chemical Compounds
HCl gas and HCl in water

• Pure substance, hydrogen chloride

• Dissolved in water (H3O+ and Cl−),

called hydrochloric acid (HCl(aq))

63
2.7 Naming Chemical Compounds

➢There are two types of acids

▪ Binary acids: compounds formed between hydrogen ion (H+) and
other non-metal anion (e.g., F-, Cl-, Br-, I- and S-2) and dissolved in
water (e.g. HCl(aq), H2S(aq))
▪ Oxoacids: "are acids that contain H, O, and another element (the
central element).
• The formulas of oxoacids are usually written with the H first, followed by the
central element and then O."

64
2.7 Naming Chemical Compounds

➢Naming Binary acids:

Make sure the compound begins with H (all acids must begin with H)
and the formula ends with “(aq),” and the second element is a
nonmetal.
Base name of nonmetal
Name of Acid = (Hydro) + + (Acid)
+ “ ic”

65
2.7 Naming Chemical Compounds

66
2.7 Naming Chemical Compounds

Name of the Pure Compound Name of the Acid in Aqueous Solution

Hydrogen bromide (HBr) Hydrobromic acid (HBr(aq))
Hydrogen chloride (HCl) Hydrochloric acid (HCl(aq))
Hydrogen iodide (HI) Hydroiodic acid (HI(aq))

67
2.7 Naming Chemical Compounds

➢Naming Oxoacids:
i. Make sure that the compound begins with H (all acids must begin with
hydrogen).
ii. Only the polyatomic ion is used in naming oxoacids.
iii. Name the polyatomic ion changing the ending as follows:
• If the polyatomic ion ends with “ate” change its ending to “ic”
• If the polyatomic ion ends with “ite” change its ending to “ous”
iv. The name is followed by the word “acid.”

68
2.7 Naming Chemical Compounds
Summary:
➢ If the oxoanion name ends with “ate” :
Base name of oxoanion
Name of Acid = + (Acid)
+ “ ic”

➢ If the oxoanion name ends with “ite” :

Base name of oxoanion
Name of Acid = + (Acid)
+ “ ous”

Examples: H2SO4: sulfuric acid (SO42-: sulfate)

H2SO3: sulfurous acid (SO32-: sulfite)

69
HNO3 nitric acid

H2CO3 carbonic acid

H3PO4 phosphoric acid

70
2.7 Naming Chemical Compounds

➢Often two or more oxoacids have the same central atom

but a different number of O atoms.
▪ HClO
▪ HClO2
▪ HClO3
▪ HClO4
How these acids are named?

71
2.7 Naming Chemical Compounds
➢ Starting with the reference oxoacids whose names all end with “-
ic,” use the following rules to name these compounds:
▪ Addition of one O atom to the “-ic” acid: The acid is called “per… -ic” acid.
Thus, adding an O atom to HClO3 changes chloric acid to perchloric acid
(HClO4).
▪ Removal of one O atom from the “-ic” acid: The acid is called “-ous” acid.
Thus, nitric acid, HNO3, becomes nitrous acid, HNO2.
▪ Removal of two O atoms from the “-ic” acid: The acid is called “hypo… -
ous” acid. Thus, when HBrO3 is converted to HBrO, the acid is called
hypobromous acid.

72
2.7 Naming Chemical Compounds

➢The following five common acids are used as references in

naming oxoacids:
H2CO3 carbonic acid
HClO3 chloric acid
HNO3 nitric acid
H3PO4 phosphoric acid
H2SO4 sulfuric acid

73
2.7 Naming Chemical Compounds

74
Common oxoacids and assoicated anions
Oxoacid Formula Anion Anion Formula
acetic acid CH3COOH acetate CH3COO-
carbonic acid H2CO3 carbonate CO32-
chloric acid HClO3 chlorate ClO3=
chlorous acid HClO2 chlorite ClO2-
hypochlorous acid HClO hypochlorite ClO-
iodic acid HIO3 iodate IO3-
nitric acid HNO3 nitrate NO3-
nitrous acid HNO2 nitrite NO2-
perchloric acid HClO4 perchlorate ClO4-
phosphoric acid H3PO4 phosphate PO43-
phosphorous acid H3PO3 phosphite PO33-
sulfuric acid H2SO4 sulfate SO42-
sulfurous acid H2SO3 sulfite SO32-

75
76
 Bases
➢A base can be defined as a substance that yields hydroxide ions
(OH-) when dissolved in water.

NaOH sodium hydroxide

KOH potassium hydroxide
Ba(OH)2 barium hydroxide

77
Is ammonia (NH3) an exception?
➢ NH3 is a molecular compound in the gaseous or pure liquid
state, is also classified as a common base.
➢Substances that yield hydroxide ions when dissolved in water
can be considered a base even they don’t contain hydroxide
ions in their structures.
➢When ammonia dissolves in water, it yields some OH− ions, so
it is classified as a base.

78
2.7 Naming Chemical Compounds
4. Naming Hydrates
➢ Hydrates are compounds that have a specific number of water
molecules attached to them.
➢ For example: copper(II) sulfate has 5 water molecules associated with it.
➢ Name: copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate, and its formula is written as
CuSO4 · 5H2O.
➢ The water molecules can be driven off by heating, resulting compound
is CuSO4 (sometimes called anhydrous copper(II) sulfate)

79
 BaCl2•2H2O barium chloride dihydrate

LiCl•H2O lithium chloride monohydrate

MgSO4•7H2O magnesium sulfate heptahydrate

Sr(NO3)2 •4H2O strontium nitrate tetrahydrate

CuSO4•5H2O CuSO4

80
81
 Chemical Nomenclature – summary

1.1 Naming of Type I Ionic Compounds (metal’s charge is fixed)

Compound name = Name of cation + Root of anion + suffix “ – ide”
1.2 Naming of Type II Ionic Compounds (metal has variable charges)
Compound name = Name of cation + (Charge of cation in Roman numeral) + Root of anion + suffix “ – ide”
2. Naming of Molecular Compounds (metal has variable charges)
Compound name = Prefix + Name of 1st element + Prefix + Base name of 2nd element + suffix “ – ide”
3.1 Naming Binary acids (acid is a proton donor)
Name of Acid = (Hydro) + Base name of nonmetal + “ic” + Acid
3.2 Naming Oxoacids (acids containing oxygen)
For oxoanions ending with “ate”
Name of Acid = Base name of oxoanion + “ic” + Acid
For oxoanions ending with “ite”
Name of Acid = Base name of oxoanion + “ous” + Acid

82