H2 Chemistry (9729)

Lecture Notes 1
Atoms, Moles and Stoichiometry
Assessment Objectives:
Candidates should be able to:
a) define the terms relative atomic, isotopic, molecular and formula mass, based on the 12C scale
b) define the term mole in terms of the Avogadro constant
c) calculate the relative atomic mass of an element given the relative abundances of its isotopes
d) define the terms empirical and molecular formula
e) calculate empirical and molecular formulae using combustion data or composition by mass
f) write and/or construct balanced equations
g) perform calculations, including use of the mole concept, involving:
1. reacting masses (from formulae and equations)
2. volumes of gases (e.g. in the burning of hydrocarbons)
3. volumes and concentrations of solutions
[when performing calculations, candidates’ answers should reflect the number of significant figures
given or asked for in the question]
(h) deduce stoichiometric relationships from calculations such as those in (g)

[the term relative formula mass or Mr will be used for ionic compounds]
Content
 Introduction
 Relative masses of atoms and molecules
 The mole concept, the Avogadro constant
 Stoichiometry
 The calculation of empirical and molecular formulae
 Reacting masses and volumes (of solutions and gases) [Volumetric Titration]
Recommended Materials:
1) Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry by Peter Cann and Peter Hughes, published by
Hodder Education
2) A-Level Chemistry (4th Edition) by E N Ramsden, published by Oxford University Press
3) Advanced Study Guide Chemistry by C S Toh, published by Step-by-Step International Pte. Ltd.

Prepared by Arvin Liangdy

1. Introduction
1.1 Atoms and Sub-Atomic Particles

- An atom is the smallest particle of an element that retains the chemical properties of that element.
- A molecule is the smallest part of an element or a compound which can exist alone under ordinary
conditions.
- All atoms consist of three basic particles: protons, neutrons and electrons.

Sub-atomic particle proton neutron electron

1 1 0
Symbol 1 p 0 n -1 e
1
Relative mass 1 1
1840
Relative charge +1 0 -1

Location within the atom In the nucleus In the nucleus Around the nucleus

1.2 Important Terms and Definitions

Terms Definition Notes
Proton number of protons in the nucleus of an atom Symbol: Z
Number of that element Characterises the element.
(Atomic E.g. Every atom with an atomic number of
number) 6 is a carbon atom; it contains protons in
its nucleus.
Nucleon sum of protons and neutrons in a nucleus of nuclear particles (protons & neutrons) are
number an atom of an element called nucleons because they are found in
(Mass the nucleus
number) Hence, mass number is total number of
nucleons
Symbol: A
Nuclide Any species of given mass number and 1 12 14 16
atomic number. 1H 6C 7N 8O
Summary Total number of protons and neutrons = A
Number of protons = Z
Number of neutrons = A-Z
Number of electrons = Number of protons =
¿ Element Symbol ¿ or
Z
A
Z X

Examples: Proton number Neutron number Electron number

Prepared by Arvin Liangdy

 12
6C 6 12 – 6 = 6 6
13
6C 6 13 – 6 = 7 6
14
6C 6 14 – 6 = 8 6
19 −
9F 9 19 – 9 = 10 9 + 1 = 10
23 +
11 Na 11 23 – 11 = 12 11 – 1 = 10

1.3 Isotopes

- Isotopes of an element are elements with the same atomic number (number of protons, same Z)
but different mass number (due to different number of neutrons, different A).

Same number of electrons Same chemical properties

Different number of neutrons Different physical properties

- Isotopic Abundance

i. Most elements occur naturally as a mixture of isotopes. The abundance of each in the
mixture is called its isotopic abundance.
ii. For such elements with different isotopes, the average relative isotopic mass of the
atoms must be used in calculating the relative atomic mass.
iii. Some elements consist of only one type of atom naturally and are isotopically pure.
Examples: 19F, 23Na, 27Al, 31P, 127I
Example 1: Isotopes of Hydrogen

Number of Number of Number of Isotopic abundance in

Name Symbol
protons neutrons electrons natural hydrogen
1
Protium 1H or 1 0 1 99.984%
(Hydrogen) H
2
Deuterium 1H o 1 1 1 0.015%
(Heavy Hydrogen) rD
3
1H o Very rare – 1 part in 1017
Tritium 1 2 1
rT (radioactive and unstable)

Example 2: Isotopes of Chlorine

Number of Number of Number of Isotopic abundance in

Name Symbol
protons neutrons electrons natural hydrogen
35
Chlorine-35 17 Cl 17 18 17 75%
37
Chlorine-37 17 Cl 17 20 17 25%

2. Relative Masses
2.1 The Carbon-12 scale

Prepared by Arvin Liangdy

 - The masses of atoms are very small, from 10 -24 to 10-22 grams. Chemists use a relative atomic mass
scale to compare the masses of different atoms.
- In 1961, the carbon-12 atom was adopted by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
(IUPAC) as the reference standard for relative atomic masses.
- On the carbon-12 scale, atoms of the isotope 12C are assigned a relative atomic mass of 12 and the
relative masses of all other atoms are obtained by comparison with the mass of the carbon-12 atom.

2.2 Relative Atomic Mass (Ar)

- Definition: The relative atomic mass, Ar, of an element is defined as the ratio of the average mass
of one atom of the element to 1/12 the mass of an atom of 12C isotope expressed on the 12C scale.
- Since it is a ratio, Ar has NO units
Mass of 1 atom of the element
A r=
1
x mass of 1 atom of 12 C
Formula for Ar: 12
- The Ar can be obtained in the Periodic Table given in the Data Booklet.
2.3 Relative Isotopic Mass
- Definition: The relative isotopic mass, Ar, of a particular isotope is defined as the ratio of the mass
of one atom of the isotope to 1/12 the mass of an atom of 12C isotope expressed on the 12C scale.
Mass of 1 atom of the isotope
A r=
1
x mass of 1 atom of 12 C
Formula for Ar: 12
- Since it is a ratio, Ar has NO units
- Relative isotopic masses can be determined by mass spectrometry.

Prepared by Arvin Liangdy

 Exercise 1
1) Calculate the relative atomic mass of chlorine.

Isotope Relative abundance

35
Cl 75.00%
37
Cl 25.00%
Solution:

Relative atomic mass of chlorine = A r

(35 . 0 x 75. 00 )+(37 . 0 x 25. 00 )
¿ =35 . 5
100

2) The element boron consists of 2 isotopes 10B and 11B. The relative abundance of the 10B isotope is
20.0%. Calculate the relative atomic mass of boron to 1 decimal place.

Solution:

Average relative isotopic mass of boron = Relative atomic mass of B

(10. 0 x 20 . 0)+(11 . 0 x 80 . 0)
= =10. 8
100
3) The element rhenium consists of 2 isotopes 185Re and 187Re, in the atomic ratio of 2:3. Calculate the
relative atomic mass of rhenium to 1 decimal place.

Solution:

Average relative isotopic mass of rhenium = Relative atomic mass of Re

(185 x 2)+(187 x 3)
= =186 . 2
5
4) The element bromine consists of 2 isotopes 79Br and 81Br. The relative atomic mass of bromine is 79.9.
Calculate the relative abundance of 79Br.

Solution:

Let the relative abundance of Br-79 be X%

(79.0 x X )+(81.0 x (100-X ))

=79.9
100
8100−2 X = 7990
X = 55
Hence the relative abundance of Br-79 is 55%

2.4 Relative Molecular Mass (Mr)

Prepared by Arvin Liangdy

 - Definition : The relative molecular mass, Mr, of a substance is defined as the ratio of average mass
of one molecule of the substance to 1/12 the mass of an atom of 12C isotope expressed on the 12C
scale.
- Since it is a ratio, Mr has NO units
3 Formula for relative molecular mass:

Mass of 1 molecule of the element or compound

relative molecular mass=
1
x mass of 1 atom of 12 C
12
- Mr can be simply taken to be the sum of the Ar of all the atoms shown in the formula of the
substance.
Example: Mr of methanol, CH3OH = 12.0 + 4(1.0) + 16.0 = 32.0
Mr of Aspirin, C9H8O4 = 9(12.0) + 8(1.0) + 4(16.0) = 180.0

- For ionic compounds, which do not consist of molecules, a formula unit is used.
Example: formula unit of sodium chloride is NaCl. Mr = 23.0 + 35.5 = 58.5

- Hence, for relative mass of ionic compounds, the term relative formula mass is used.
- It is also correct to use the term relative molecular mass for ionic compounds
Mass of all the atoms in the formula
relative formula mass=
1
x mass of 1 atom of 12 C
Formula for relative formula mass: 12

- Relative formula mass = sum of the relative masses of all the atoms shown in the formula of the
ionic compound
Example: Mr of CuSO4.5H2O = 63.5 + 32.1 + 4(16.0) + 5(2 x1.0 + 16.0)
= 249.6
- The charge on ions is ignored as the mass of an electron is very small.
Example: Relative formula mass of OH- ion = 16.0 + 1.0 = 17.0

Prepared by Arvin Liangdy

3. Mole Concept

3.1 Mole Concept and Avogrado’s Constant

- The mole is the SI (Systeme International) unit for measuring “amount of substance”.

Base physical quantity Usual symbol SI unit Symbol for unit

Amount of substance n mole mol

- Definition : One mole of a substance is that amount of the substance which contains the same
number of particles as the number of atoms in exactly 12 g of 12C (6.02 x 1023 atoms).
- The word ‘mole’ is derived from the Latin word meaning a collection, mass or pile.
- 1 mole is a collective term for 6.02 x 1023 entities or particles which may be electrons, ions, atoms or
molecules.
- Avogadro constant: 6.02 x 1023 mol-1 (per mole)
- Symbol: NA or L
- Molar Mass: the mass of one mole of substance.
i. unit: g mol-1
ii. numerically equal to the Ar or Mr of that substance
- Examples:
Molar mass of Fe = 55.8 g mol-1 Ar of Fe = 55.8
Molar mass of H2O = 18.0 g mol-1 Mr of H2O = 18.0
-1
Molar mass of MgCl2 = 95.3 g mol Mr of MgCl2 = 95.3
- Note that the molar mass of a substance has the same numerical value as the A r or Mr of that
substance except that it has units of g mol-1 while both Ar and Mr have no units.
- Useful relationships for calculations:

m = mass of substance in grams

n = amount of substance in mole
N = number of particles
L = Avogrado’s constant (6.02 x 1023)

Note: 1 dm3 = 1L = 1000 cm3

- It is important to specify the type of particles when discussing the number of moles of different
substances.
- Examples of Relationship between the mole and Avogadro constant.

Prepared by Arvin Liangdy

 1 mole of Sodium atoms, Na
1 mole of Hydrogen atoms, H
1 mole of Hydrogen molecules, H2
+
1 mole of Hydrogen ions, H
1 mole of Water molecules, H2O
1 mole of Magnesium Chloride molecules,
MgCl2
Contains 6.02 x 1023 Na atoms
Containts 6.02 x 1023 H atoms
Contains 6.02 x 1023 H2 molecules
Contains 1.204 x 1024 H atoms
Contains 6.02 x 1023 H+ ions
Contains 6.02 x 1023 H2O molecules
Contains 1 mole of O atoms, hence 6.02 x 1023 O atoms
Contains 2 moles of H atoms, hence 1.204 x 1024 H atoms
Contains 3 moles of atoms, hence 1.806 x 1024 atoms
Contains 6.02 x 1023 MgCl2 molecules
Contains 1 mole of Mg2+ ions, hence 6.02 x 1023 Mg2+ ions
Contains 2 moles of Cl- ions, hence 1.204 x 1024 Cl- ions
Contains 3 moles of ions, hence 1.806 x 1024 ions

Exercise 2
1) In 36 g of water, how many moles of (a) molecules; (b) hydrogen atoms are present?

Solution:

mass in grams 36
(a) No. of moles of H2O molecules = molar mass of H 2 O = 18 = 2 mol

(b) Each molecule of H2O contains 2 hydrogen atoms

No. of moles of hydrogen atoms = 2 x no. of moles of H2O molecules

= 2 x 2 = 4 mol

Prepared by Arvin Liangdy

 2) Fill in the blanks below. The first line has been done as an example.

Solution:

number of
relative
mass / moles of number of particles
substance molecular/atomic
gram substance / present
mass
mol
1.99 mol of 1.20 x 1024
Water, H2O 18.0 35.9
water molecules of water
9.03 x 1023
1.5 mol of
Ethane, C2H6 30.0 45 molecules of
ethane
ethane
1.50 mol of
87.9 1.81 x 1024 ions
Sodium chloride, NaCl
58.5
NaCl 3.01 mol of 1.81 x 1024 units of
176
NaCl NaCl

3.2 Moles of Gases

- Avogadro’s law states that equal volumes of gases, measured under the same conditions of
temperature and pressure, contain equal number of moles (and therefore equal number of
particles).
- The molar volume (symbol: Vm) of a gas is the volume occupied by 1 mole of the gas.
- At standard temperature and pressure, s.t.p., (273 K, 101 kPa), one mole of any gaseous elements
or compounds occupies a volume of 22.4 dm3.
- At room temperature and pressure, r.t.p., (298K, 101 kPa) one mole of any gaseous elements or
compounds occupies a volume of 24.0 dm3.
- The amount of a gas X can be determined from its volume and molar volume measured under the
same conditions of temperature and pressure.

volume of X ( d m 3 )
Amount of gas X (mol) =
molar volume of X (dm3 mol -1 )

Note the conversion unit of volume:

1 cm3 = 10-3 dm3 = 10-6 m3
1 dm3 = 1000 cm3 = 10-3 m3
1 m3 = 1000 dm3 = 106 cm3
Exercise 3
1) How many molecules of O2 are there in 56.7 dm3 of oxygen gas at s.t.p.?

Prepared by Arvin Liangdy

 Solution:
22.4 dm3 = 1 mol = 6.02 x 1023 molecules
56.7
No. of molecules in 56.7 dm = 6.02 x 10 x 22. 4
3 23
= 1.52 x 1024
2) Calculate the volume at s.t.p. occupied by 1.00 x 1023 molecules of methane.
Solution:
23
1 . 00×10
23
No. of moles of methane = 6 . 02×10 = 0.16611 mol
3
Volume = 0.16611 × 22.4 = 3.72 dm
3) Calculate the relative molecular mass of a substance X if 8.00 dm3 of the substance X at s.t.p. weighs
5.70 g
Solution:
8.00
No. of moles = 22.4 = 0.35714 mol
5.70
Mr = 0.35714 = 16.0

3.3 Mole Concept and Solutions

- A solution is a homogeneous mixture of 2 or more substances.

- The substance which is in greater quantity is the solvent and the other substance is called the
solute.
- Solutions in which water is the dissolving medium, i.e. which acts as the solvent are called
aqueous solutions.

3.3.1 Concentrations

- The term concentration is to designate the amount of solute dissolved in a given quantity of
solvent or solution.
- Concentration can be expressed as:

i. mass of solute per dm3 of solution (unit : g dm-3)

ii. moles of solute per dm3 of solution (unit : mol dm-3)

Formula:

Concentration in mol dm-3 Concentration in g dm-3 Conversion from g dm-3 to mol dm-3

Prepared by Arvin Liangdy

 n = no. of moles n = no. of moles c = concentration (g dm-3 or mol dm-3)

c = concentration (mol dm-3) c = concentration (g dm-3) V = volume (dm3)

V = volume (dm3) V = volume (dm3)

- Example: If 40 g of NaOH, is dissolved in water to make up a solution of 1 dm 3; the concentration of

this solution can be expressed as: 40 g dm-3 or 40/40 = 1 mol dm-3

- Expressing the concentration in mass or mole of solute per unit volume of solution, allows
convenient comparison of concentrations of different solutions.

Exercise 4
1) 200 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm-3 BaCl2 solution was mixed with 300 cm3 of 0.2 mol dm-3 of NaCl solution. What
is the concentration in mol dm-3 of the resulting solution with respect to (a) Ba2+; (b) Cl- ions?

Solution:

BaCl2(aq) Ba2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq)

NaCl (aq) Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)

200
(a) no. of moles of Ba 2+
= 0.1 x 1000 = 0.02 mol

500
[Ba ] = 0.02 / ( 1000 ) = 0.04 mol dm-3
2+

200 300
(b) no. of moles of Cl- = 2 x (0.1 x 1000 ) + (0.2 x 1000 )

= 0.1 mol

500
[Cl-] = 0.1 / ( 1000 ) = 0.2 mol dm-3

2) 8.0 g of NaOH is dissolved in 400 cm3 of solution. Calculate:

(a) the number of moles of NaOH in the solution;
(b) the concentration of the solution in g dm-3 and mol dm-3.
Solution:

Prepared by Arvin Liangdy

 8 .0
=0 .2
(a) no. of moles of NaOH used : 23+16+1 mol
8 .0
=20 g dm -3
(b) [NaOH] = 0. 4
20
=0 . 5 mol dm -3
= 40
3) What is the molar mass of a substance if there is 100 g in 2.5 dm3 of 2.0 mol dm-3 solution?

Solution:
100 g
3
=40 g dm -3
[substance] = 2 . 5 dm
40
=2 . 0 mol dm -3
= molar mass
molar mass = 20 g mol-1
4) How many grams of potassium dichromate (VI), K2Cr2O7, must be used to make 250 cm3 solution of
concentration 0.680 mol dm-3?

Solution:
250
0 .680× =0 .17
amount of K2Cr2O7 needed = 1000 mol
mass of K2Cr2O7 needed = 0.17 x (39.1 x 2 + 52 x 2 + 16 x 7) = 50.0 g
5) 200 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm-3 NaNO3 solution was mixed with 200 cm3 of 0.4 mol dm-3 of Mg(NO3)2 solution.
What is the concentration in mol dm-3 of the resulting solution with respect to (a) Mg2+ (b) NO3- ions?

Solution:

Total volume = 200 + 200 = 400 cm3 = 0.4 dm3

(a) amount of Mg2+ present: 0.4 x 0.2 = 0.08 mol

0.08
[Mg2+] = 0.4 = 0.200 mol dm-3

−
(b) amount of NO 3 = 0.5 x 0.2 + 0.4 x 0.2 x 2 = 0.26 mol

0.26
−
[NO 3 ] = 0.4 = 0.650 mol dm-3
4. Stoichiometry

- A balanced chemical equation = stoichiometric equation

- The amount of substances undergoing the reaction in a stoichiometric equation is known as the
stoichiometric amounts.

Prepared by Arvin Liangdy

 - The relationship between the amounts of reactants and the products in a chemical reaction is called
stoichiometry. The coefficients in a balanced equation are the stoichiometric coefficients.
- Stoichiometry is of fundamental importance in modern chemistry. In the chemical industry,
knowledge of stoichiometry is essential for the calculation of the yields of chemical products and the
efficiency of chemical processes. In the aerospace and transport industries, scientists and
engineers use stoichiometry procedures to calculate fuel needs. Stoichiometry procedures also help
the biochemist to follow the metabolic processes that take place in organisms. The process of
energy production in living cells is an example.
4.1 Calculations involving chemical equations

Exercise 6
1) If copper sulfate is mixed with potassium iodide solution, the following reaction occurs: 2CuSO4(aq)
+ 4KI(aq)  2CuI(s) + I2(s) + 2K2SO4(aq)

(a) What mass of copper sulfate is required to produce 20 g of iodine?

(b) What mass of potassium sulfate is also produced?

Solution:
20
(a) No. of moles of I2 in 20 g of I2 = 127x2 = 0.078740 mol

As I2  2 CuSO4

No. of moles of CuSO4 = 0.078740 x 2 = 0.15748 mol

Mass of CuSO4 required =0.15748 x molar mass = 0.15748 x 159.6 = 25.1 g

(b) No. of moles of potassium sulfate = No. of moles of CuSO 4 = 0.15748 mol

Mass of potassium sulfate = 0.15748 x (39.1 x 2 + 32.1 + 16 x 4) = 27.4 g

Prepared by Arvin Liangdy

 2) 0.65 g of zinc powder was added to a beaker containing silver nitrate solution. When all the zinc had
reacted, 2.16 g of silver was obtained. Calculate the number of moles of
(a) zinc used; (b) silver formed; (c) silver produced by 1 mole of zinc;
Hence, write a balanced ionic equation for the reaction.
Solution:

0.65
(a) amount of Zn used = 65.4 = 9.9388 x 10-3 ≈ 9.94 x 10-3 mol
2.16
(b) amount of Ag formed = 108 = 0.02 mol
0 .02
(c) amount of Ag formed by 1 mol of Zn = 9. 9388×10−3 = 2.01 ≈ 2 mol
(d) Zn(s) + 2Ag+(aq)  Zn2+(aq) + 2Ag(s)
3) Methanol has been suggested for use as an alternative fuel in the automobile. Methanol can be
manufactured by the reaction between carbon monoxide and hydrogen at high temperature and
pressure: CO + 2H2  CH3OH
(a) How many grams of CH3OH can be prepared by the complete reaction of 5 moles of H2?
(b) What mass of carbon monoxide will be used?
Solution:
(a) 5 moles of H2 would form with 2½ moles of CH3OH
Mass of CH3OH formed = 2.5 x (12 + 4 + 16) = 80 g
(b) 5 moles of H2 would react with 2½ moles of CO
Mass of CO used = 2.5 x (12 + 16) = 70 g
4) Sufficient potassium iodide solution was added to 250 cm 3 lead(II) nitrate solution to precipitate all the
lead(II) iodide. The mass of lead(II) iodide produced was 2.305 g. What was the concentration of lead(II)
nitrate ?
Solution:
−
Pb(NO3)2 + 2I- → PbI2 + 2NO 3
2 .305
amount of PbI2 produced = 207+127×2 = 5 x 10-3 mol
amount of Pb(NO3)2 used = amount of PbI2 produced

5×10−3
[Pb(NO3)2] = 0 . 25 = 0.02 mol dm-3

Prepared by Arvin Liangdy

4.2 Calculations of percentage yield

 Yield: The mass of product formed in a chemical reaction.

 Theoretical Yield: The yield of a product calculated from the chemical equation.
 Actual Yield: The yield actually obtained in an experiment or industrial process.
 Many reactions do not go to completion, e.g. reactions between organic compounds. In these
reactions, the actual yield is less than the theoretical yield.
Actual Yield
Percentage yield = x 100%
Formula: Theoretical Yield

 Percentage yield is a measure of the efficiency of the reaction. Impurities in the reactants, side
reactions and practical factors can affect efficiency of reaction.
 Using an excess of one or more of the reactants can often increase percentage yields. In this case,
the amount of product is determined by the amount of the reactant that is not in excess and is
used up completely in the reaction.
 This reactant is called the limiting reactant because it limits the amount of product formed.
Exercise 7
1) Aspirin can be formed by allowing salicylic acid and acetic anhydride to react in an appropriate solvent
according to the balanced equation:

HOC6H4COOH + (CH3CO)2O CH3COOC6H4COOH + CH3COOH

salicyclic acid acetic anhydride aspirin ethanoic acid

14.4 g of salicyclic acid and a stoichiometric excess of acetic anhydride are used to prepare aspirin. 6.26
g of aspirin is obtained. Calculate the percentage yield for aspirin in the reaction.

Solution:
14 . 4
No. of moles of HOC6H4COOH = 12 x 7 + 6 + 16 x 3  0.10435 mol

No. of moles of aspirin = No. of moles of salicyclic acid = 0.10435 mol

Molar mass of aspirin = 9 x 12 + 8 + 4 x 16 = 180 g mol-1

Theoretical yield = 0.10435 x 180  18.783 g

6.26
Thus % yield = 18.783 x 100%  33.3 %

Prepared by Arvin Liangdy

 2) What mass of zinc can be obtained from the reaction of 10 tonnes of zinc oxide by 10 tonnes of
charcoal? [1 tonne = 1000 kg = 106 g]

2ZnO(s) + C(s) → 2Zn(s) + CO2(g)

How many moles of the excess reactant remain at the end of the reaction?

Solution:
7
10
(a) amount of ZnO present in 10 tonnes : 65 . 4+16 = 1.2285 x 105 mol

7
10
amount of C present in 10 tonnes of charcoal : 12 = 8.3333 x 105 mol

The limiting reagent is ZnO.

mass of Zn produced = 1.2285 x 105 x 65.4 = 8.03 tonnes

(b) amount of excess reactant = 8.3333 x 105 – 0.5 × 1.2285 x 105 = 7.72 x 105 mol

3.3.2 Dilution

- A solution of lower concentration can be obtained from one of higher concentration by adding the
solvent. This process is called dilution.
- When solvent is added to dilute the solution, the number of moles of solute remains the same.
Formula:

No. of moles of solute before dilution = No . of moles of solute after dilution

Since: no. of moles = concentration x volume

Concentration initial x Volume initial = Concentration final x Volume final

Prepared by Arvin Liangdy

 Exercise 5
1) How much water must be added to 200 cm 3 of NaOH solution of concentration 0.2 mol dm -3 to reduce
its concentration to 0.14 mol dm-3?

Add water
Volume = ?
200 cm3
-3
0.2 mol dm-3 0.14 mol dm

Solution:

CI x VI = CF x VF

200
0.2 x 1000 = 0.14 x VF

0. 2 x (200
1000 )
×1000
VF = 0 . 14 = 285.7 cm3

Volume of water added = 285.7 – 200 = 85.7 cm3

2) 250 cm3 of a solution of HCl of concentration 0.4 mol dm-3 is diluted to 800 cm3 with deionised water.
Calculate (a) the number of moles of HCl present in the diluted solution; (b) the concentration of this
diluted solution.

Solution:

(a) amount of HCl = 0.4 x 0.25 = 0.1 mol

0.1
(b) [HCl]diluted = 0.8 = 0.125 mol dm-3

4.3 Calculations of percentage composition

- From the formula of a compound and the relative atomic masses of the elements in it, the
percentage of each element in the compound can be calculated.
- This is called the percentage composition by mass.

Prepared by Arvin Liangdy

 Exercise 8
1) Haemoglobin contains 0.33% by mass of iron. There are four iron ions in one molecule of
haemoglobin. What is the relative molecular mass of haemoglobin?

Solution:

100 g haemoglobin contain 0.33 g Fe

0.33
amount of Fe = 55.8 = 5.9140 x 10-3 mol

1 haemoglobin = 4 Fe

 No. of moles of haemoglobin in 100 g = ¼ x 5.9140 x 10-3 mol = 1.4785 x 10-3 mol
100
-3
 Mass of 1 mole of haemoglobin = 1 . 4785 x 10 g = 67636 g  67600 g

 Mr = 67600
2) A mixture of MgSO4.7H2O and CuSO4.5H2O is heated until a mixture of anhydrous salts is formed. If
5.0 g of the mixture give 3.0 g of the anhydrous salts, calculate the percentage by mass of MgSO4.7H2O
in the mixture.
Solution:
Let the mass of MgSO4.7H2O in the mixture be y g.
MgSO4.7H2O  MgSO4(s) + 7H2O(g) --- (1)
CuSO4.5H2O  CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(g) --- (2)
5g 3g 2g
Mr of MgSO4.7H2O = 246.4
Mr of CuSO4.5H2O = 249.6

Reaction Compounds No. of Moles

1 MgSO4.7H2O y
246 . 4
H2O(g) y
x7
246 .4
2 CuSO4.5H2O 5- y
249 .6
H2O(g) 5- y
x5
249.6
2
no. of moles of steam liberated = 18 mol

y 5- y 2
x7 x5
246 .4 + 249.6 = 18

Prepared by Arvin Liangdy

 y = 1.3072 g

mass of MgSO4.7H2O = 1.3072 g

percentage by mass of MgSO4.7H2O = 26.1%

3) Calculate the percentage by mass of water in copper sulfate pentahydrate crystals (CuSO4.5H2O).

Solution:

5×18
Percentage by mass of water in copper sulfate pentahydrate = 249 .6 x 100% = 36.1%

5. Molecular and Empirical Formulae

5.1 Definitions

- Empirical Formula: The empirical formula of a compound is the simplest formula which shows the
ratio of the atoms of the different elements in the compound.
Example: Empirical formula of glucose (C6H12O6) = CH2O

- Molecular Formula: The molecular formula of a compound is one which shows the actual number
of atoms of each element present in one molecule of the compound.
Example: Empirical Formula of ethene is CH2.

Molecular formula of ethene = C2H4

- When two compounds have the same empirical formula, they do not necessary have the same
molecular formula
Examples:

i. If a compound has empirical formula = CH2O, its molecular formula can be CH2O, C2H4O2,
C3H6O3 and so on.

Prepared by Arvin Liangdy

 ii. Example of alkenes having the same empirical formula
Compound Molecula Empirical Notes
r Formula Formula
- It is possible for a compound to have its empirial
Methane CH4 CH4 formula being the same as its molecular formula.
- The molecular formula is always a multiple of the
Ethene C2H4 empirical formula.

Propene C3H6 CH2

Cyclohexane C6H12

Sodium Chloride NaCl

- The formula of an ionic compound is always its empirical formula.

- The empirical formula of a compound may be calculated from experimental data (from combustion
analysis or elemental analysis).
- The molecular formula can be determined from the empirical formula provided the molar mass or
the relative molecular mass of the compound is known.
Comparison:

Empirical formula Molecular formula

Can be determined from the known Cannot be determined from empirical formula alone (more
molecular formula info, e.g. molecular mass, is needed)
Indicate only the relative numbers and Indicate the actual numbers and types of atoms in a
types of atoms in a molecule molecule

Prepared by Arvin Liangdy

5.2 Calculations of Empirical and Molecular Formulae

5.2.1 Using Composition by Mass

Exercise 9
1) Calculate the empirical formula of a compound that has the composition 12.8% carbon, 2.1%
hydrogen and 85.1% bromine. What is the molecular formula of the compound given its molar mass to be
188 g / mol?

Solution:

In 100 g of compound, there is 12.8 g of C, 2.1 g of H and 85.1 g of Br

Element C H Br
Mass/g 12.8 2.1 85.1
No. of moles 12.8 2.1 85.1
12 = 1.0667 1 = 2.1 79.9 = 1.0651
Simplest ratio 1 2 1

empirical formula = CH2Br

molecular formula = (CH2Br)n

relative molecular mass (Mr) = n x relative mass of the empirical formula

188.0 = n x (12.0 + 2.0 + 79.9)

n=2

 Molecular formula = C2H4Br2

2) Calculate the empirical formula of the compounds for which the following analytical results were
obtained:

(a) 27.3% C, 72.7% O

(b) 29.1% Na, 40.5% S, 30.4% O
Solution:

(a) In 100 g of compound, there is 27.3 g of C, 72.7 g of O

Element C O
Mass / g 27.3 72.7
No. of moles 27.3 72.7
12 = 2.275 16 = 4.5438
Simplest ratio 1 2

Prepared by Arvin Liangdy

 Empirical formula = CO2

(b) In 100 g of compound, there is 29.1 g of Na, 40.5 g of S and 30.4 g of O

Element Na S O
Mass/g 29.1 40.5 30.4
No. of moles 29.1 40.5 30.4
23 = 32.1 = 16 = 1.9
1.2652 1.2617
Simplest ratio 2 2 3

Empirical formula = Na2S2O3

Note:

a) In the calculation of empirical formula from experimental data, it is a common procedure to round
off figures to the corresponding nearest whole numbers in order to get the simplest ratio.
b) Great care should be exercised when the following figures are obtained and these figures are
usually multiplied by a factor in order to get the correct simplest ratio.
Example:

3 4 5 6
1.5 = 2 1.33 = 3 1.25 = 4 1.2 = 5

multiply by 2 multiply by 3 multiply by 4 multiply by 5

Prepared by Arvin Liangdy

 3) Glucose has empirical formula CH2O and relative molecular mass 180. Find the molecular formula
glucose.

Solution:

molecular formula = (CH2O)n

relative molecular mass (Mr) = n x relative mass of the empirical formula

180 = n x (12.0 + 2.0 + 16.0)

n=6

 Molecular formula = C6H12O6

4) The formula of a complex salt Q is NH 4[Cr(SCN)X(NH3)y] and analysis produced the following
composition by mass: Cr 15.5%, S 38.1%, N 29.2%. Calculate the values of x and y in the formula for Q.

Solution:

Element Cr S N
comp. by mass / % 15.5 38.1 29.2
No. of moles 15.5 38.1 29.2
52 = 32.1 = 1.1869 14 =
0.29808 2.0857
Simplest ratio 1 4 7

By comparing the simplest ratio with the formula NH4[Cr(SCN)X(NH3)y]

from S : x=4

from N : 1 + x + y = 7

y=2

5.3 Determination of Molecular Formulae and Relative Molecular Mass of Gaseous Hydrocarbons

5.3.1 Using Combustion Data

- Hydrocarbons burn completely in excess oxygen to give carbon dioxide and water.
General equation:

y y
C x H y ( g )+( x + )O 2 ( g)→ xCO 2 ( g)+ H 2 O(l)
4 2

where x and y are whole numbers.

Prepared by Arvin Liangdy

 - Under room conditions, the water product is a liquid. Hence the volume of water is negligible
compared with the volumes of the CxHy, O2 and CO2 gases in the equation.
- If reaction is done at temperature greater than 100°C, the water produced is a gas.
- Under the same conditions of temperature and pressure, Avogadro’s Law states that equal
volumes of gases contain equal numbers of molecules (equal mole).
- The identity of the gas does not matter. Therefore

Mole ratio = Volume ratio

- Hence, if 1 cm3 of CxHy is completely burnt in oxygen,

y
x+
Volume of O2 used = 4 cm3
Volume of CO2 produced = x cm3

- For gaseous reactions, the molar ratio shown in the balanced equation also indicates the volume
ratio of the reactants and products.

y y
C x H y ( g )+( x + )O 2 ( g)→ xCO 2 ( g)+ H 2 O(l)
4 2
y y
Molar ratio 1 : x+ : x :
4 2
y y
Volume ratio 1 : x+ : x :
4 2

The overall method is as follows:

Prepared by Arvin Liangdy

 Exercise 10
1) What is the volume of residual gas if 80 cm 3 of ethene were exploded with 260 cm 3 of oxygen? (All
volumes measured at s.t.p.)

C2H4(g) + 3O2(g)  2CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

Solution:

C2H4 O2 CO2
initial vol present 80 cm3 260 cm3
stoichiometric coefficient 1 3 2

Base on the stoichiometric coefficients, 80 cm 3 of ethene will use up 240 cm 3 of O2 and produce 160 cm3
of CO2.

vol. of residual gas = vol. of CO2 + excess O2

vol. of unreacted O2 = 260 – 240 = 20 cm3

Therefore, vol of residual gas = 160 + 20 = 180 cm3

2) 20 cm3 of a gaseous hydrocarbon was mixed with 150 cm 3 of oxygen. The mixture was sparked so
that the hydrocarbon was immediately burnt. The gaseous products had a total volume of 130 cm 3. When
this product was passed over sodium hydroxide, the volume of the product decreased to 90 cm 3. All
gases were measured at s.t.p. Deduce the molecular formula of the hydrocarbon.

Prepared by Arvin Liangdy

 Solution:

volume of CO2 produced = 130 – 90 = 40 cm3

volume of unused oxygen remaining = 90 cm3

Therefore, volume of oxygen used in combustion = 150 – 90 = 60 cm3

y y
CxHy(g) + (x + 4 )O2(g)  xCO2(g) + 2 H2O(l)

CxHy O2 CO2
vol ratio 20 cm3 60 cm3 40 cm3
mole ratio 20 60 40
simplest ratio 1 3 2

Since mole ratio of CxHy : CO2 = 1 : x, x = 2

y y
Therefore, x + 4 =3  2+ 4 =3  y=4
Hence, molecular formula = C2H4
3) 10 cm3 of a gaseous hydrocarbon require 20 cm3 of oxygen gas exactly for complete combustion. 10
cm3 of carbon dioxide was produced in the combustion. All gases were measured under the same
conditions. Calculate the molecular formula of the hydrocarbon and hence its relative molecular mass.

Solution:
y y
CxHy(g) + (x + 4 )O2(g)  xCO2(g) + 2 H2O(l)
Since the volume ratio of hydrocarbon : carbon dioxide is 1 : 1,
x=1
Since the volume ratio of hydrocarbon : oxygen is 1 : 2
y
x+ 4 =2
y =4
Hence the molecular formula of the hydrocarbon is CH4.
Mr = 12.0 + 1.0 x 4 = 16.0
4) A mixture of 10 cm3 of a gaseous hydrocarbon and 200 cm3 of oxygen on explosion gave 175 cm3
which was reduced to 135 cm 3 on shaking with potassium hydroxide solution. What is the molecular
formula of the hydrocarbon? All gases were measured at r.t.p.

Solution:

Prepared by Arvin Liangdy

 y y
CxHy(g) + (x + 4 )O2(g)  xCO2(g) + 2 H2O(l)

potassium hydroxide would neutralise the carbon dioxide produced

Volume of CO2 produced = 175 – 135 = 40 cm3

Volume of unused oxygen remaining = 135 cm3

Therefore, volume of oxygen used in combustion = 200 – 135 = 65 cm3

CxHy O2 CO2
Vol ratio 10 cm3 65 cm3 40 cm3
Mole ratio 10 65 40
Simplest ratio 1 6.5 4

Hence

x=4

y
x+ 4 = 6.5

y = 10 Therefore the hydrocarbon is C4H10.

5) When 20 cm3 of a gaseous hydrocarbon were completely burnt in an excess of oxygen, 60 cm3 of
carbon dioxide and 40 cm3 of water vapour were formed, all volumes being measured at the same
temperature and pressure. What is the formula of the hydrocarbon?
N98/III/3; J90/I/5

A C3H4 B C3H6 C C3H8 D C6H8

Solution:

y y
CxHy(g) + (x + 4 )O2(g)  xCO2(g) + 2 H2O(g)

CxHy CO2 H2O

Vol ratio 20 cm3 60 cm3 40 cm3
Simplest ratio 1 3 2
Hence

x=3

y
2 =2

y=4

Prepared by Arvin Liangdy

 Therefore, the hydrocarbon is C3H4. (Ans : A)

Prepared by Arvin Liangdy

6. Volumetric Analysis/ Titration

- Titration is a common laboratory method of quantitative/chemical analysis that can be used to

determine the concentration of a known reactant. It is also known as volumetric analysis.
- Methodology:

i. A reagent, called the titrant, of known concentration (a standard solution) and volume is
used to react with a solution of the analyte, whose concentration is not known.

ii. Using a burette to add the titrant, it is possible to determine the exact volume of titrant that
was used when the endpoint (equivalence point) is reached, often shown by a change in
colour of the analyte solution.

iii. It is often necessary to add an indicator for a colour change to be observed.

iv. There are many different types of titrations, of which the following are of particular interest to
us:
o Acid-base titration
o Back titration
o Redox titration (to be explained under redox reactions)
6.1 Acid-Base Titration

- In an acid-base titration, the aim of a titration is to determine the volume of titrant (from a burette)
required to neutralize a given amount of analyte, usually 25.0 cm3 from a pipette.
- Knowing the concentration and volume of the titrant, and the stoichiometry of the reaction, the
concentration of the analyte can be found.
- In the process of a titration, an indicator is often used to detect the end point. The end point is the
point at which the indicator changes colour by reacting with an excess of one of the reagents.
- Basicity refers to the maximum number of moles of hydrogen ions, H +, that can be produced by 1
mole of acid.
- There are four main types of acid-base titrations:
1. Strong acid – strong base titration
2. Strong acid – weak base titration
3. Weak acid – strong base titration
4. Weak acid – weak base titration (no suitable indicators, data logger is utilised)

Prepared by Arvin Liangdy

Experimental Setup:

Monobasic acid Dibasic acid Tribasic acid

Eg: Eg: Eg:

HCl  H+ + Cl– H2SO4  2H+ + SO42– H3PO4  3H+ + PO43–

CH3COOH H+ + CH3COO– H2CO3  2H+ + CO32– C6H8O7  3H+ + C6H5O73–

HNO3  H+ + NO3– H3PO3  2H+ + HPO32– citric acid

Basicity = 1 Basicity = 2 Basicity = 3

Exercise 11
1) 1.60 g of an acid of relative molecular mass 118 was made up to 250 cm3 of aqueous solution.

25.0 cm3 of this solution required 27.10 cm3 of 0.10 mol dm-3 sodium hydroxide for neutralisation.
Calculate the number of moles of sodium hydroxide required to react with one mole of the acid, and
hence the basicity of the acid.

Solution:

1 . 60 1
× =0 . 054237
[acid] = 118 0. 250 mol dm-3

25 . 0 27 . 10
0 . 054237× :0. 10× ≈1:2
mole ratio of acid : NaOH = 1000 1000

Hence basicity of acid is 2.

Prepared by Arvin Liangdy

 3) In an experiment, 20.0 cm3 of sodium hydroxide, NaOH, reacted with 16.00 cm3 of 0.2 mol dm-3
hydrochloric acid, HCl. Calculate

(i) the moles of HCl used

(ii) the moles of NaOH present

(iii) the concentration of NaOH in mol dm-3

Solution:

(i) amount of HCl used = 0.2 x 0.016 = 3.2 x 10-3 mol

(ii) amount of NaOH present = amount of HCl used = 3.2 x 10-3 mol

3 . 2×10−3
(iii) [NaOH] = 0. 02 = 0.16 mol dm-3
4) 25.0 cm3 of calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2, was titrated with 16.00 cm3 of 14.6 g dm-3
hydrochloric acid. Calculate the concentration of

(i) Ca(OH)2 in mol dm-3

(ii) hydroxide ion, OH–, in g dm-3

(Note: how many moles of H+ can 1 mole of Ca(OH)2 react with?)

Solution:

14.6
(i) amount of HCl used = 1+35.5 x 0.016 = 6.4 x 10-3 mol

amount of Ca(OH)2 present in 25.0 cm3 = 3.2 x 10-3 mol

-3
3 .2 x 10
[Ca(OH)2] = 0. 025 = 0.128 mol dm-3

(ii) [OH-] = 0.128 x 2 x 17 = 4.35 g dm-3

6.2 Back Titration

- In this titration method, an unknown amount of reagent X reacts with a known amount excess
reagent Y.

- To determine the amount of X, reagent Y is allowed to react with X until the reaction is complete.
- The remaining amount of Y is then reacted with a standard reagent to determine the amount of
Y in excess in the reaction with X.

Prepared by Arvin Liangdy

 Amount of Y reacted with X = Amount of Y initially – Amount reacted with standard reagent

- By subtracting the amount of Y in (c) from that of (a), the amount of Y which reacted with X is
known.
- Using mole ratio between X and Y, the amount of X can be determined.
- Back titration is used when:
i. the sample is not soluble in water
ii. the sample contains impurities that interfere with normal titration
iii. the end-point is more easily identified than in normal titration.
- Example:
o Solid substances (CaCO3 in toothpaste) where the end-point is difficult to detect.
o Volatile substances (Ammonia, Iodine) where inaccuracy arises due to loss of substance
during titration.
Exercise 12
1) 100 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm-3 of hydrochloric acid, HCl was added to 25.0 cm3 of a solution of sodium
carbonate, Na2CO3. The excess acid required 12.20 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm-3 sodium hydroxide solution,
NaOH, for neutralisation. Calculate the concentration of the Na2CO3 solution.

Solution:

Step 1: Na2CO3 reacts with HCl + excess HCl

Step 2: the excess HCl was reacted with NaOH, hence we can determine the amount of HCl in excess
for step 1 and hence the amount of HCl that reacted completely with Na2CO3 in step 1.

Amount of HCl = Amount of HCl added – Excess HCl

Step 3: Determine the number of moles of Na2CO3 and hence the concentration.

12. 20
×0 .1=1. 22×10−3
No. of moles of excess HCl = no. of moles of NaOH used = 1000 mol.

100
×0. 1−1 . 22×10−3 =8 . 78×10−3
No. of moles of reacted HCl = 1000 mol.

8. 78×10−3
No. of moles of Na2CO3 = 2 mol.

4 . 39×10−3
=0 .176
[Na2CO3] = 0 . 0250 mol dm-3

Prepared by Arvin Liangdy

2)Solid FA 1 contains a mixture of NaCl and NaHCO3. 10.0 cm3 of a solution containing 200 g of FA 1 per
dm3 was added to 60 cm3 (excess) of HCl of concentration 0.700 mol dm-3. The mixture was then made
up to 250 cm3. A 20.0 cm3 aliquot was then titrated with 15.50 cm3 of 5.0 g dm-3 NaOH. Calculate the
percentage by mass of NaHCO3 in FA 1.
Solution:

NaHCO3 + HCl → NaCl + CO2 + H2O

15 .5 5.0
× =1 .9375×10−3
No. of moles of NaOH = 1000 23+16+1 mol

No. of moles of excess HCl in 20.0 cm3 aliquot = 1.9375 × 10-3 mol

250
1. 9375×10−3 × =0. 024219
No. of moles of excess HCl in 250 cm3 solution = 20 .0 mol

60
×0. 700−0 .024219=0 . 017781
No. of moles of reacted HCl = 1000 mol

= No. of moles of NaHCO 3

Mass of NaHCO3 = 0.017781 × (23.0+1.0+12.0+3×16.0) = 1.4936 g

1 . 4936
×100%=74 . 7%
10
Percentage by mass =
200× ( )
1000

Prepared by Arvin Liangdy

6.3 The Double Indicator Method (Self-Study)
 A mixture of carbonate and alkali can be analysed using the double indicator method. Example:
Sodium hydroxide and Sodium carbonate
 The mixture will be titrated with an acid, for instance, hydrochloric acid, HCl, to determine their
amount using two indicators (hence, the name, double indicator method)
 The reactions of sodium hydroxide and sodium carbonate with hydrochloric acid are represented by
the equations shown below:
Reaction
1 NaOH + HCl  NaCl + H2O

(x-y) mole
2a Na2CO3 + HCl  NaHCO3 + NaCl

(y mole)
2b NaHCO3 + HCl  NaCl + CO2 + H2O

(y mole)
 When phenolphthalein is used as the reaction between HCl and the mixture, the pink colour is
discharged when reaction 1 and 2(a) are completed.
 When the titration is continued using methyl orange, an additional amount of HCl is used to cause a
colour change. This amount of HCl is used for reaction 2(b).
 Treatment of data:
o Amount of HCl used with phenolphthalein (Reaction 1 and 2a) = x mol
o Amount of HCl used with methyl orange (Reaction 2b) = y mol
o Amount of HCl used for reaction with Na2CO3 = 2y mol
o Amount of Na2CO3 reacted = (1/2)(Amount of HCl reacted with Na2CO3)
= (1/2) (2y) = y mol

o Amount of HCl used for reaction with NaOH = Amount of NaOH present
= (x-y) mol

 The concentrations of NaOH and Na2CO3 are calculated from the data obtained.

Prepared by Arvin Liangdy

 Exercise 13
25.0 cm3 of a mixture of sodium hydroxide and sodium carbonate was titrated with 0.150 mol dm -3
hydrochloric acid, using phenolphthalein. The pink colour was observed to be discharged at 25.80 cm 3.
Two drops of methyl orange was added and titration was continued. An additional 12.00 cm 3 of
hydrochloric acid were needed to reach the end-point. Determine the concentration of sodium hydroxide
and sodium carbonate in the solution.

Solution:

Using methyl orange as indicator:

NaHCO3(aq) + HCl(aq)  NaCl(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

Amount of HCl which reacted with NaHCO3= (0.0120 x 0.150) = 1.80 x 10-3 mol
Amount of NaHCO3 reacted = Amount of HCl reacted = 1.80 x 10-3 mol
Amount of Na2CO3 reacted = Amount of NaHCO3 produced = 1.80 x 10-3 mol
Concentration of Na2CO3 = 1.80 x 10-3 /(0.0250) = 0.0720 mol dm-3

Using phenolphthalein as indicator:

NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq)  NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

Na2CO3(aq) + HCl(aq)  NaHCO3(aq) + H2O(l)

Amount of HCl reacted with NaOH and Na2CO3 = (0.0258 x 0.150) = 3.87 x 10-3 mol
Amount of HCl reacted with NaOH = 3.87 x 10-3 – 1.80 x 10-3 = 2.07 x 10-3 mol
Concentration of NaOH = 2.07 x 10-3 / (0.0250) = 0.0828 mol dm-3

Prepared by Arvin Liangdy

Terms for recap

 The relative atomic mass, Ar, of an element is defined as the ratio of the average mass of one atom
of the element to 1/12 the mass of an atom of 12C isotope expressed on the 12C scale.
 The relative isotopic mass, Ar, of a particular isotope is defined as the ratio of the mass of one atom
of the isotope to 1/12 the mass of an atom of 12C isotope expressed on the 12C scale.
 The relative molecular mass, Mr, of a substance is defined as the ratio of average mass of one
molecule of the substance to 1/12 the mass of an atom of 12C isotope expressed on the 12C scale.
 The relative formula mass, (also M r), of an ionic compound is defined as the ratio of average mass
12 12
of one unit of an ionic compound to 1/12 the mass of an atom of C isotope expressed on the C
scale.
 One mole of a substance is that amount of the substance which contains the same number of
particles as the number of atoms in exactly 12 g of 12C (6.02 x 1023 atoms).
 The empirical formula of a compound is the simplest formula which shows the ratio of the atoms of
the different elements in the compound.
 The molecular formula of a compound is one which shows the actual number of atoms of each
element present in one molecule of the compound.
Basic formulae for recap

percentage x relative isotopic mass

 Ar =
total percentage
 amount of substance = concentration x volume
= mass / molar mass
= volume of gas / molar volume (base on s.t.p. or r.t.p.)

Some Important Points to take note of

 In the calculation of empirical formula from experimental data, it is a common procedure to round off
figures to the corresponding nearest whole numbers in order to get the simplest ratio. The rounding
off procedure is usually justified, taking into consideration the possibility of experimental errors.
 However, when figures such as those listed below are encountered, the usual rounding off process
may lead to an incorrect empirical formula. Great care should be exercised when these figures are
obtained. These figures are usually multiplied by a factor in order to get the correct simplest ratio.
 Note: Hypothetical data are used here.

Incorrect Actual
Ratio Calculated Remarks
simplest ratio deduced Simplest ratio
1.51 : 3.07 : 1.00 2:3:1 3:6:2 1.5 = 3/2 (multiply by a factor 2)
1.33 : 3.07 : 1.00 1: 3 : 1 4:9:3 1.33 = 4/3 (multiply by a factor 3)
1.25 : 3.07 : 1.00 1:3:1 5 : 12 : 4 1.25 = 5/4 (multiply by a factor 4)
1.20 : 3.07 : 1.00 1:2:1 6 : 10 : 5 1.2 = 6/5 (multiply by a factor 5)

Prepared by Arvin Liangdy

Appendix:

Appendix I: Application of stoichiometry to daily life

What to take for an upset stomach??
As soon as food reaches your stomach, acidic gastric juices are released by the glands in the mucous
lining of the stomach. The high acidity, due to dissolved hydrochloric acid, is needed for the enzyme
pepsin to catalyse the digestion of proteins in food. When you eat too much food, or when your stomach
is irritated by very spicy food, your stomach response by producing even more acid, and you can feel
discomfort/indigestion (heartburn). Heartburn is a frequent symptom and it can be relieved with an
antacid. A variety of commercial antacids contain magnesium hydroxide, aluminum hydroxide, calcium
carbonate or calcium hydrogencarbonate.

Mg(OH)2(s) + 2HCl(aq) ===> MgCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l)

Al(OH)3(s) + 3HCl(aq) ===> AlCl3(aq) + 6H2O(l)
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) ===> CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Ca(HCO3)2(s) + 2HCl(aq) ===> CaCl2(aq) + 2CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

Question: Which of the 2 compounds, Mg(OH)2 or Al(OH)3, do you suppose neutralise more acid per
gram of the compound?
Solution:
2×17
Percentage by mass of hydroxide in Mg(OH)2 = 24 . 3+2×17 x 100% = 58.319%
3×17
Percentage by mass of hydroxide in Al(OH)3 = 27+3×17 x 100% = 65.385%
As the percentage by mass of hydroxide in Al(OH)3 is higher, so it would neutralise more acid.

Appendix II: The history of titration

The word "titration" stems from the Latin word titalus, meaning inscription or title. The French word titre,
also from this origin, means rank. Titration, by definition, is the determination of concentration of a
solution with respect to water with a pH of 7.
The origins of volumetric analysis are in late-18th-century French chemistry. Francois Antoine Henri
Descroizilles developed the first burette, which looked more like a graduated cylinder in 1791. Joseph
Louis Gay-Lussac developed an improved version of the burette that included a side arm, and coined the
terms "pipette" and "burette" in an 1824 paper on the standardization of indigo solutions. A major
breakthrough in the methodology and popularization of volumetric analysis was due to Karl Friedrich
Mohr, who redesigned the burette by placing a clamp and a tip at the bottom, and wrote the first textbook
on the topic.

Prepared by Arvin Liangdy